隨著移動定位服務在社群網站上的發展以及可攜帶式裝置的普及，愈來愈多人喜歡藉由「打卡」來和朋友分享自己的所在地或曾經去過的地方。本研究欲探討在什麼情況下，朋友的打卡會引發觀看者更多的羨慕情緒，以及觀看者會透過什麼樣的消費行為應對由羨慕情緒引發的挫折感，並以權利距離信念 (power distance belief, PDB) 作為干擾變數，做更進一步地討論。三個實驗的結果指出，高社會地位的朋友比起非高社會地位的朋友，更能引發低權力距離信念者的善意羨慕 (benign envy) 情緒，而當打卡者的應得程度 (deservingness) 愈低時，會促發高權力距離信念者愈多的惡意羨慕情緒 (malicious envy)；上述的效果皆會造成較高程度的的地位性消費 (status consumption) 或地位需求 (need for status)。值得一提的是，打卡者應得程度對高權力距離信念者之影響，只有在應得程度以社會地位為準則被進行評估時才有顯著的效果。此研究結果補充了社群媒體研究中，和羨慕情緒和消費行為的相關文獻。

Along with the development of location-based services on social network sites (SNSs) and the prevalence of portable devices on the go, more and more people fond of sharing their locations via "check-in". This research investigates when friends' check-ins evoke observers' envy, and how the observers cope with the frustrating feelings of envy with their consumption. It also examines the moderating roles of power distance belief (PDB) on the effect of friends' check-in on envy and status consumption. Across three experimental studies, this research suggests that, while check-ins from superior friends (vs., not superior friends) are more likely to trigger benign envy to low-PDB observers, the undeserved check-ins are more likely to trigger malicious envy to high-PDB observers; both the effects lead to a greater intention on status consumption (or a higher need for status). Notably, the effect of deservingness thorough malicious envy on need for status, which is found on high-PDB observers, can be verified only when the deservingness of check-ins is evaluated based on the checkers' social status. This research contributes to the social media literature in examining the emotion of envy and consumer behaviors.

論文審定書 i
論文公開授權書 ii
中文摘要 iii
Abstract iv
Table of Contents v
Table of Figures vii
Table of Tables viii
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
Chapter 2. Theoretical Background and Hypotheses 6
2.1 Check-Ins on Social Media 6
2.2 Social Comparison Theory: The Self-Improvement Perspective 8
2.3 Envy: Benign versus Malicious 10
2.4 Power Distance Belief (PDB) 12
2.5 Checkers' Social Status, PDB, and Envy 14
2.6 Checker's Social Status, PDB, Envy, and Status Consumption 16
Chapter 3. Studies and Results 22
3.1 Overview of Studies 22
3.2 Study 1 23
3.2.1 Design and Participants 23
3.2.2 Measures and Manipulation 23
3.2.3 Results - Taiwanese sample (n = 193) 27
3.2.4 Results - German sample (n = 169) 33
3.2.5 Discussion 38
3.3 Study 2 40
3.3.1 Design and Participants 40
3.3.2 Measures and Manipulation 40
3.3.3 Results 44
3.3.4 Discussion 47
3.4 Study 3 50
3.4.1 Design and Participants 50
3.4.2 Measures and Manipulation 50
3.4.3 Results 52
3.4.4 Discussion 56
Chapter 4. General Discussion 58
4.1 Main Findings 58
4.2 Contributions and Implications 61
4.3 Research Limitation and Future Research 63
References 65
Appendix 72
Appendix A. Manipulation and Measures in Study 1 72
Appendix B. Manipulation and Measures in Study 2 75
Appendix C. Measures in Study 3 79

Appel, H., Gerlach, A. L., & Crusius, J. (2016). The interplay between Facebook use, social comparison, envy, and depression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 9, 44-49.
Argo, J. J., White, K., & Dahl, D. W. (2006). Social comparison theory and deception in the interpersonal exchange of consumption information. Journal of Consumer Research, 33(1), 99-108.
Aristotle (1954). The Rhetoric and the Poetics of Aristotle, ed. W. Rhys Roberts. NY: Modern Library.
Bagwell, L. S., & Bernheim, B. D. (1996). Veblen effects in a theory of conspicuous consumption. The American Economic Review, 349-373.
Barkow, J.H. (1992). Beneath new culture is old psychology. In: Barkow, J.H., Cosmides, L., Tooby, J. (Eds.), The Adapted Mind. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 627-638.
Beckman, S. R., Formby, J. P., Smith, W. J., & Zheng, B. (2002). Envy, malice and Pareto efficiency: An experimental examination. Social Choice and Welfare, 19(2), 349-367.
Belk, R. W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of consumer research, 15(2), 139-168.
Berger, J., & Heath, C. (2007). Where consumers diverge from others: Identity signaling and product domains. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(2), 121-134.
Buunk, B. P., Collins, R. L., Taylor, S. E., VanYperen, N. W., & Dakof, G. A. (1990). The affective consequences of social comparison: either direction has its ups and downs. Journal of personality and social psychology, 59(6), 1238-1249.
Charles, K. K., Hurst, E., & Roussanov, N. (2009). Conspicuous consumption and race. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 124(2), 425-467.
Chou, H. T. G., & Edge, N. (2012). "They are happier and having better lives than I am": the impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others' lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(2), 117-121.
Cohen‐Charash, Y. (2009). Episodic envy. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39(9), 2128-2173.
Collins, R.L. (2000). Among the better ones: Upward assimilation in social comparison. Theory and research, 159-171.
Crusius, J., & Lange, J. (2014). What catches the envious eye? Attentional biases within malicious and benign envy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 55, 1-11.
Dawson, S. & Cavell, J. (1987). Status Recognition in the 1980S: Invidious Distinction Revisited", in NA - Advances in Consumer Research Volume 14, eds. Melanie Wallendorf and Paul Anderson, Provo, UT : Association for Consumer Research, Pages: 487-491.
Donnenwerth, G. V., & Foa, U. G. (1974). Effect of resource class on retaliation to injustice in interpersonal exchange. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29(6), 785-793.
Dubois, D., Rucker, D. D., & Galinsky, A. D. (2011). Super size me: Product size as a signal of status. Journal of Consumer Research, 38(6), 1047-1062.
Duffy, M. K., & Shaw, J. D. (2000). The Salieri syndrome: Consequences of envy in groups. Small group research, 31(1), 3-23.
Eastman, J. K., Goldsmith, R. E., & Flynn, L. R. (1999). Status consumption in consumer behavior: Scale development and validation. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 7(3), 41-52.
Ellison, N., Heino, R., & Gibbs, J. (2006). Managing impressions online: Self‐presentation processes in the online dating environment. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 11(2), 415-441.
Epstein, J. (2003). Envy. NY: Oxford University Press.
Erdem, T., Swait, J., & Valenzuela, A. (2006). Brands as signals: A cross-country validation study. Journal of Marketing, 70(1), 34-49.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human relations, 7(2), 117-140.
Foster, G. M. (1972). The anatomy of envy: A study in symbolic behavior. Current anthropology, 13(2), 165-202.
Frank, R. H. (1999). Luxury fever: Why money fails to satisfy in an era of excess. NY: Free Press.
Gao, H., Winterich, K. P., & Zhang, Y. (2016). All That Glitters Is Not Gold: How Others' Status Influences the Effect of Power Distance Belief on Status Consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 43(2), 265-281.
Gilbert, P., Price, J., & Allan, S. (1995). Social comparison, social attractiveness and evolution: How might they be related?. New ideas in Psychology, 13(2), 149-165.
Goffman, E. (2002). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books.
Häfner, M. (2004). How dissimilar others may still resemble the self: Assimilation and contrast after social comparison. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14(1-2), 187-196.
Han, Y. J., Nunes, J. C., & Drèze, X. (2010). Signaling status with luxury goods: The role of brand prominence. Journal of Marketing, 74(4), 15-30.
Hayakawa, S. I. (1963). Symbol, status, and personality. NY: Harcourt, Brace, and World.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford Press.
Hill, S. E., & Buss, D. M. (2010). Risk and relative social rank: positional concerns and risky shifts in probabilistic decision-making. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31(3), 219-226.
Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. CA: Sage.
--- (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
---, & Minkov, M. (2010). Long-versus short-term orientation: new perspectives. Asia Pacific business review, 16(4), 493-504.
Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., De Luque, M. S., & House, R. J. (2006). In the eye of the beholder: Cross cultural lessons in leadership from Project GLOBE. The academy of management perspectives, 20(1), 67-90.
Kim, H. S. (2016). What drives you to check in on Facebook? Motivations, privacy concerns, and mobile phone involvement for location-based information sharing. Computers in Human Behavior, 54, 397-406.
Kim, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2014). The Impact of Power-Distance Belief on Consumers' Preference for Status Brands. Journal of Global Marketing, 27(1), 13-29.
Krasnova, H., Widjaja, T., Buxmann, P., Wenninger, H., & Benbasat, I. (2015). Research note-why following friends can hurt you: an exploratory investigation of the effects of envy on social networking sites among college-age users. Information systems research, 26(3), 585-605.
Lalwani, A. K., & Forcum, L. (2016). Does a Dollar Get You a Dollar's Worth of Merchandise? The Impact of Power Distance Belief on Price-Quality Judgments. Journal of Consumer Research, 43(2), 317-333.
---, Torelli, C. J., Wang, J., & Wang, Y. (2014). Power Distance Belief and Consumers' Preference for Premium (vs. Generic) Brands: The Role of Consumers' Status and Product Type. working paper.
Lindqvist, J., Cranshaw, J., Wiese, J., Hong, J., & Zimmerman, J. (2011, May). I'm the mayor of my house: examining why people use foursquare-a social-driven location sharing application. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 2409-2418). ACM.
Linville, P. W. (1987). Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related illness and depression. Journal of personality and social psychology, 52(4), 663.
Mangleburg, T. F., Doney, P. M., & Bristol, T. (2004). Shopping with friends and teens' susceptibility to peer influence. Journal of retailing, 80(2), 101-116.
McFerran, B., Dahl, D. W., Fitzsimons, G. J., & Morales, A. C. (2010). Might an overweight waitress make you eat more? How the body type of others is sufficient to alter our food consumption. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 20(2), 146-151.
Molz, J. G. (2006). Cosmopolitan bodies: Fit to travel and travelling to fit. Body & Society, 12(3), 1-21.
Mussweiler, T., Rüter, K., & Epstude, K. (2004). The ups and downs of social comparison: mechanisms of assimilation and contrast. Journal of personality and social psychology, 87(6), 832-844.
Oyserman, D. (2006). High power, low power, and equality: Culture beyond individualism and collectivism. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16(4), 352-356.
Papacharissi, Z. (2002). The presentation of self in virtual life: Characteristics of personal home pages. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 79(3), 643-660.
Parks, C. D., Rumble, A. C., & Posey, D. C. (2002). The effects of envy on reciprocation in a social dilemma. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(4), 509-520.
Parrott, W. G., & Smith, R. H. (1993). Distinguishing the experiences of envy and jealousy. Journal of personality and social psychology, 64(6), 906-920.
Richins, M. L. (1994). Special possessions and the expression of material values. Journal of consumer research, 21(3), 522-533.
--- (2004). The material values scale: Measurement properties and development of a short form. Journal of consumer Research, 31(1), 209-219.
Roseman, I. J. (1996). Appraisal determinants of emotions: Constructing a more accurate and comprehensive theory. Cognition & Emotion, 10(3), 241-278.
Roth, M. S. (1995). The effects of culture and socioeconomics on the performance of global brand image strategies. Journal of Marketing Research, 163-175.
Rothermund, K., & Meiniger, C. (2004). Stress-buffering effects of self-complexity: Reduced affective spillover or self-regulatory processes?. Self and Identity, 3(3), 263-281.
Rucker, D. D., & Galinsky, A. D. (2009). Conspicuous consumption versus utilitarian ideals: How different levels of power shape consumer behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(3), 549-555.
---, Galinsky, A. D., & Dubois, D. (2012). Power and consumer behavior: How power shapes who and what consumers value. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22(3), 352-368.
Salovey, P., & Rodin, J. (1988). Coping with envy and jealousy. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 7(1), 15-33.
Schoeck. H. (1969). Envy: A Theory of Social Behavior. NY: Harcourt, Brace, and World.
Shalev, E., & Morwitz, V. G. (2011). Influence via comparison-driven self-evaluation and restoration: the case of the low-status influencer. Journal of Consumer Research, 38(5), 964-980.
Smith, I. et al. (2005). Social disclosure of place: From location technology to communication practices. Pervasive Computing, 151-164.
Smith, R. H., & Kim, S. H. (2007). Comprehending envy. Psychological bulletin, 133(1), 46-64.
---, Parrott, W. G., Diener, E. F., Hoyle, R. H., & Kim, S. H. (1999). Dispositional envy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(8), 1007-1020.
---, Parrott, W. G., Ozer, D., & Moniz, A. (1994). Subjective injustice and inferiority as predictors of hostile and depressive feelings in envy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(6), 705-711.
---, Turner, T. J., Garonzik, R., Leach, C. W., Urch-Druskat, V., & Weston, C. M. (1996). Envy and schadenfreude. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(2), 158-168.
Spiller, S. A., Fitzsimons, G. J., Lynch Jr, J. G., & McClelland, G. H. (2013). Spotlights, floodlights, and the magic number zero: Simple effects tests in moderated regression. Journal of Marketing Research, 50(2), 277-288.
Suls, J., Martin, R., & Wheeler, L. (2002). Social comparison: Why, with whom, and with what effect?. Current directions in psychological science, 11(5), 159-163.
Sutko, D. M., & de Souza e Silva, A. (2011). Location-aware mobile media and urban sociability. New Media & Society, 13(5), 807-823.
Tan, W., & Chong, E. (2003). Power distance in Singapore construction organizations: implications for project managers. International Journal of Project Management, 21(7), 529-536.
Tang, K. P., Lin, J., Hong, J. I., Siewiorek, D. P., & Sadeh, N. (2010, September). Rethinking location sharing: exploring the implications of social-driven vs. purpose-driven location sharing. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM international conference on Ubiquitous computing (pp. 85-94). ACM.
Taylor, D. G., & Strutton, D. (2016). Does Facebook usage lead to conspicuous consumption? The role of envy, narcissism and self-promotion. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 10(3), 231-248.
Taylor, S. E., & Lobel, M. (1989). Social comparison activity under threat: downward evaluation and upward contacts. Psychological review, 96(4), 569.
Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. Advances in experimental social psychology, 21, 181-227.
---, & Paulhus, D. (1983). The definition of self: Private and public self-evaluation management strategies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(4), 672-682.
---, Millar, M., & Moore, J. (1988). Some affective consequences of social comparison and reflection processes: the pain and pleasure of being close. Journal of personality and social psychology, 54(1), 49-61.
Torelli, C., Lalwani, A., Wang, J., & Wang, Y. (2012). The Interplay between Power Distance, Position in the Social Hierarchy, and Product Type: Consequences for Consumers' Preferences for Premium over Generic Brands. ACR North American Advances.
Tromholt, M. (2016). The Facebook experiment: quitting facebook leads to higher levels of well-being. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 19(11), 661-666.
Van Boven, L., & Gilovich, T. (2003). To do or to have? That is the question. Journal of personality and social psychology, 85(6), 1193-1202.
van de Ven, N., Hoogland, C. E., Smith, R. H., Van Dijk, W. W., Breugelmans, S. M., & Zeelenberg, M. (2015). When envy leads to schadenfreude. Cognition and Emotion, 29(6), 1007-1025.

---, Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2009). Leveling up and down: the experiences of benign and malicious envy. Emotion, 9(3), 419.
---, Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2010a). The envy premium in product evaluation. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(6), 984-998.
Van Dijk, W. W., Ouwerkerk, J. W., Goslinga, S., & Nieweg, M. (2005). Deservingness and schadenfreude. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 933-939.
Wang, S. S., & Stefanone, M. A. (2013). Showing off? Human mobility and the interplay of traits, self-disclosure, and Facebook check-ins. Social Science Computer Review, 31(4), 437-457.
White, K., Simpson, B., & Argo, J. J. (2014). The motivating role of dissociative out-groups in encouraging positive consumer behaviors. Journal of Marketing Research, 51(4), 433-447.
Wilcox, K., Kim, H. M., & Sen, S. (2009). Why do consumers buy counterfeit luxury brands?. Journal of marketing research, 46(2), 247-259.
Wilson, M. W. (2012). Location-based services, conspicuous mobility, and the location-aware future. Geoforum, 43(6), 1266-1275.
Winterich, K. P., & Zhang, Y. (2014). Accepting inequality deters responsibility: How power distance decreases charitable behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(2), 274-293.
Wood, J. V. (1989). Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological bulletin, 106(2), 231-248.
Yoo, B., Donthu, N., & Lenartowicz, T. (2011). Measuring Hofstede's five dimensions of cultural values at the individual level: Development and validation of CVSCALE. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 23(3-4), 193-210.
Zhang, Y., Winterich, K. P., & Mittal, V. (2010). Power distance belief and impulsive buying. Journal of Marketing Research, 47(5), 945-954.
Zizzo, D. J., & Oswald, A. J. (2001). Are people willing to pay to reduce others' incomes?. Annales d'Economie et de Statistique, 39-65.