我國於西元1993年9月，臺灣地區65歲以上的法定老年人口已佔總人口的7%，達到聯合國世界衛生組織(WHO)所訂定的高齡化社會指標，從當時期起臺灣社會即已逐漸邁向老年人口眾多的高齡化社會。本研究企圖瞭解，正當臺灣人口逐漸老化之際，媒體中所呈現的老年人形象為何？雜誌廣告中再現的老人形象所涉及的文化與社會因素？以及媒體居間又如何扮演著符號構連的角色？
本研究採取批判理論觀點，以質化符號學分析的方法架構，針對從近兩年的《常春》與《康健》雜誌中所收集共85則出現老人圖像的廣告，以老人的迷思與家庭的迷思的切入觀點進行深度的檢視與符號學分析，企圖揭露圖像符號背後所隱藏的文化迷思與意識型態。
結果發現，廣告再現的老人形象深刻受到文化傳承的刻板印象影響，將老人視為必然會因年老而衰弱。然而，隨著臺灣社會的現代化以及與西方文化的接觸，雜誌廣告的老人圖像在表現上試圖融入新的老人概念，如表現積極、有活力的「成功老人」等，這一方面的發展與文獻中關於美國社會中老人圖像的變化有相似的發展軌徑，而這樣的圖像變化與社會多數握有政經資源的「戰後嬰兒潮」世代老人退休的趨勢有關。
在中華文化的脈絡之下，雜誌廣告再現的本土老人很少離開家庭存在，家庭的價值在廣告中受到一再地強調。儘管與現實情況已有相當的差距，傳統「三代同堂」的圖像在廣告中更被建構為完滿幸福的理想家庭，在其中的老人也被廣告暗示可以獲得社會認定最高的幸福滿足。
在廣告的情境中，商品常被以問題「解決方法」的方式呈現。廣告習慣的作法是先「創造」出一種與「理想」比較不足的焦慮，再適時引介商品成為解決所有問題的萬靈丹。與身體健康有關的老人廣告巧妙運用現存於社會對於傳統中醫自然無害的概念與新科技強效萬能的迷思，將傳統認同的價值與新科技的神奇光環調和，賦予生技商品同時能兼具自然的友善熟悉與科技的精確有效，粉飾之間可能有的衝突，成為一種新造的、拼貼的迷思。
老人廣告中主導的意識型態是年老�年輕截然不同的二元對立，透過強調年老的醜陋、失能與沒有權力來突顯出年輕的價值，並且設定一些努力的標準來同化「有所不足」的老人。迷思藉著片面擷取傳統承襲的概念與當代盛行的迷思，捏造看似合理的解釋，成功地將社會集體的老年議題轉化為個人需要單獨處理的不足焦慮，並暗示以購買商品作為「解決問題」消除焦慮的唯一手段，成功地將有關老人安康的社會意識「去政治化」。
在家長制的社會體系中，居於主導地位的主流意識型態習慣以一刀兩斷的方法將強弱勢方作截然對立的劃分，並設立一些社會期待的角色模範，來作為穩定系統結構的手段，不論是在種族、性別、階級、年齡等區別層面皆是如此；而且這些區別範疇會因個人的多重位置而累加、交互影響，強化不平等的地位，例如本研究中對於老人的標準與角色設定，除了傳統在家庭中接受奉養的老人，新的白種老人的形象、活力表現與生活形態也被塑造成一種新的老人模範。而結合了對於性別的偏見，對於男性老人以及女性老人所設定的老年標準也有所不同，相當值得我們進一步以性別的觀點深入地研究不同性別老人社會期待的標準。

Since 1993, the Taiwanese society has reached the WHO standard of an aging society in which over 7% of the whole population are older than 65. This research aims to find out the images of older people, those cultural and societal factors involved in the representations of older people, and what roles the media plays to connect the related signs?
This research takes perspectives from the critical theories and applies the methodology of semiotics to analysis of Changchun and Kangjiang magazines in Taiwan. The researcher collects 85 different ads containing images of older people and uses the viewpoints of mythology to analyze in semiotic terms in order to make known the cultural myths and ideologies hidden in those images and signs.
The result shows, images of older people in the ads are deeply influenced by culture, regarding older people as inevitable declining because of aging. However, owing to modernization of Taiwan and more contact with the western culture, the images of older people in magazine ads start to incorporate new concepts. Fore example, active and energetic “successful” older people have gradually become the new paradigm. This course of development is similar to that in the American society discussed in the reviewed literature. This change in images is related to the trend that the baby boomers that hold most political and economic resources are starting to retire.
In the context of Chinese culture, older people represented in those ads are rarely without their families and values of an idealized family are highly embellished. Although the realities have greatly changed, the traditional image of “three generations in a family” is constructed as the ideal form of the happy family. Older people are suggested by ads to have the utmost happiness and gratification.
In these ads, commodities are presented as the resolution of problems. Conventionally, advertisement “creates” an anxiety out of short comparison with the “ideal” and then introduces products as the panacea to cure all the problems. Health-related ads make good use of the existing Chinese medicine belief in pureness and harmlessness of nature and the concept of effectiveness and efficiency of new technology to grant the bio-tech products a combination of benevolence and familiarity of nature and preciseness and effectiveness of technology. By doing so, the ads smooth over the possible conflicts between nature and technology and make up a collage of associated myths.
The dominant ideology in ads about older people is the binary extremes of being young or old. By means of emphasizing older people as ugly, unable and powerless, the ideology promotes the values of being young. Advertisements set some high standards for older people to catch up with and assimilate those who are deemed as “insufficient.” Mythology arbitrarily selects conventional concepts and popular myths to make up seemingly reasonable explanations, successfully transforms the public issues about older people to insufficient anxieties to be coped with by individual efforts, and implies that products are the only resort to ease the anxieties, cleverly de-politicizing the societal awareness of well-being about older people.
In a paternal social system, the dominant mainstream ideology tends to separate the dominant and subordinate sides into two contradictory extremes and then establish a few roles models in accord with social expectations to stabilize the structure of the social system. Discriminating levels such as race, sex, class and age are practiced in similar ways. Besides, these discriminating categories will add up and interplay due to the overlapping of a person’s multiple positions and intensity inequality. For instance, in this research the standards and roles for older people, apart form being taken care of in the family, a new kind of images for older people is burgeoning. The new images of Caucasian older people, energetic expressions and lifestyles are modeled as the new paradigm for the elderly. In addition, collaborating with sex discrimination, this study shows, the standards for older males are different form those for older females. The new research domain is worth our further trying to exam the different standards for the male and female elderly from a perspective of sex.

第一章 緒論 -------------------------------------------------------------- 1
第一節 研究背景 ---------------------------------------------------------------- 1
壹、 全球以及臺灣人口的老化 -------------------------------------------- 1
貳、 老年人的形象 ----------------------------------------------------------- 4
第二節 研究目的與研究問題 ------------------------------------------------- 7
第二章 文獻探討 -------------------------------------------------------- 9
第一節 「老」的概念與社會建構 -------------------------------------------- 9
第二節 有關老人的刻板印象與迷思 -------------------------------------- 15
壹、 老人的刻板印象 ----------------------------------------------------- 15
貳、 美國社會公共論述上老人形象的轉換 -------------------------- 17
參、 媒體再現的老人形象 ----------------------------------------------- 19
肆、 社會文化中盛行的老人迷思 -------------------------------------- 20
伍、 老年迷思的社會實踐 ----------------------------------------------- 23
陸、 有關老人刻板印象與迷思的反省 -------------------------------- 26
第三節 廣告的再現 ----------------------------------------------------------- 29
壹、 廣告作為社會文本 -------------------------------------------------- 29
貳、 廣告中的性別與階級概念 ----------------------------------------- 31
參、 廣告的消費主義 ---------------------------------------------------- 34
肆、 廣告中的意識型態 ------------------------------------------------- 38
第三章 研究方法 ------------------------------------------------------- 42
第一節 質化的符號學分析 -------------------------------------------------- 43
第二節 研究設計 -------------------------------------------------------------- 51

第四章 資料分析 ------------------------------------------------------- 53
第一節 老人的迷思 ----------------------------------------------------------- 55
壹、 需要照顧的老人 ------------------------------------------------------- 56
貳、 顛覆性的成功老人 ---------------------------------------------------- 65
參、 自然、科技與老人 ----------------------------------------------------- 76
肆、 老人的性別、種族與階級 -------------------------------------------- 85
第二節 家庭的迷思 ----------------------------------------------------------- 98
壹、 老人與家庭 ----------------------------------------------------------- 100
貳、 圓滿家庭的神話 ----------------------------------------------------- 106
參、 孝心總動員 ----------------------------------------------------------- 110
第五章 結論與建議 -------------------------------------------------- 116
第一節 結論 ------------------------------------------------------------------- 116
壹、 廣告再現的兩極化老人圖像 ------------------------------------- 118
貳、 完美三代同堂家庭中幸福滿足的老人 ------------------------- 120
參、 調和自然與科技的商品 ------------------------------------------- 122
肆、 老人形象所隱含的性別、種族與階級概念 ------------------- 123
伍、 伍、商品化的孝順關係 -------------------------------------------- 125
第二節 研究建議 ------------------------------------------------------------- 127
參考文獻 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 131
中文部分 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 131
英文部分 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 134

中文部分
內政部統計處網路資料 (2005)，http://www.moi.gov.tw/stat/index.asp。
古添洪 (1984)。《記號詩學》。台北：東大。
吳信如譯 (2006)。《瑪士撒拉的密謀》。台北：臺灣商務。(原書Frank Schirrmacher [2004] Das Nethusalem-Komplott.)
吳珮琪 (2002)。《解讀少女雜誌廣告中的美貌迷思》。國立中山大學傳播管理研究所碩士論文。
吳榮義 (2004)。人口老化的機會與挑戰。2006年2月13日取自http://www.cepd.gov.tw/upload/MANP/Plan/special%20report930805@833479.6153672301@.pdf
李錄後、陳秀娟譯 (2000)。《美好的銀髮歲月》。台北：新自然主義。(原書 Betty Friedan [1994] The fountain of age.)
李天鐸 (1991)。〈電視廣告與社會文化關係〉。《當代》。63:18-29。
林淑媛 (2006年，6月5日)。老年人口比率 今年將破10％。聯合新聞網。 2006年6月2日，取自 http://tw.news.yahoo.com/060605/15/37hn9.html
林燕翎 (2005年，2月21日)。戰後嬰兒潮老了 大退休潮來了。經濟日報。 2006年4月3日，取自 http://udndata.com/ndapp/Story?no=1&page=1&udndbid=udndata&SearchString=vtSr4cCmqOC86abRpEYrpO...
林宇玲 (2004)。〈解讀媒體中的性別意涵以平面廣告為例〉。成露茜(編)。《批判的媒體識讀》。台北：正中。
林信華 (1999)。《符號與社會》。台北：唐山。
邵冰如 (2006年，6月4日)。20年後 每5個人1個老人。聯合新聞網。 2006年6月2日，取自 http://tw.news.yahoo.com/060604/15/37gms.html
邱天助 (2002)。《老年符號與建構－老人研究的社會文化轉折》。台北：正中。
俞建章、葉舒憲 (1990)。《符號：語言與藝術》。台北：久大文化。
柯永輝 (1995)。〈酒後的心聲—解讀流行歌曲中的女性意涵〉。顧玉珍、周月英等(合著)《媒體的女人•女人的媒體》，頁69-192。台北：碩人。
倪炎元 (2003) 。《再現的政治》。台北：韋伯文化國際。
胡幼慧 (1995)。《三代同堂－迷思與陷阱》。台北：巨流。
胡幼慧、姚美華 (1996)。《質性研究：理論、方法及本土女性研究實例》。台北：巨流。
張文嘉 (2006)。《家在麥當勞－家庭在電視廣告中的再現》。高雄：國立中山大學傳播管理研究所碩士論文。
張錦華、劉容玫譯 (2001)。《女性主義媒介研究》。 (原書van Zoonen L. [1994]. Feminist media studies. London: Sage.)
張錦華等譯 (1995)。《傳播符號學理論》。台北：遠流。(原書Fiske J. [1990]. Introduction to Communication Studies.)
梁永安譯 (2002)。《銀色的旅程》。台北：大塊。(原書Manheimer, R.J. [1999] A map to the end of time: wayfarings with friends and philosophers.)
彭木芳 (2006年，6月2日)。日本五分之一以上人口年齡超過六十五歲。法新社。2006年6月2日，取自 http://tw.news.yahoo.com/060602/215/37b34.html
張淡浪 (2006年，10月4日)。二零五零年西班牙將是歐洲老人最多國家。中央通訊社。2006年10月4日取自
http://tw.news.yahoo.com/article/url/d/a/061003/5/4v7v.html
彭駕騂著 (1999)。《老人學》。台北：揚智文化。
黃新生譯 (1994)。《媒介分析方法》。台北：遠流。(原書Berger, A. A. [1933]. Media Analysis Techniques. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.)
劉真如譯 (2002)。《下一個社會》。台北：商周出版。(原書Peter Drucker [2002] Managing in the next society: beyond the information revolution.)
潘英美譯 (1999)。《老人與社會》。台北：五南。(原書Thorson, J.A.[1995] Aging in a changing society.)
蔡美瑛 (2004)。《媒體識讀：一個批判的開始》成露茜,羅曉南主編。台北：正中。
鍾蔚文 (1992)。《從媒介真實到主觀真實－看新聞，怎麼看？看到什麼？》。台北：正中。
簡妙如譯 (1999)。《大眾傳播媒體新論》。台北：韋伯。(原書Taylor L. & Willis A. [1999]. Media Studies: Texts, Institutions and Audiences.)
顧玉珍 (1991)。《解讀電視廣告中的女性意涵》。台北：國立政治大學新聞研究所碩士論文。













英文部分
Achenbaum, A. (1995). Images of old age in America, 1790-1970: A vision and re-vision. In M. Featherstone & A. Wernick (Eds), Images of Aging (pp. 19-28). London: Routledge.
Adams, M. (1997). Sex in the snow: Canadian social values at the end of the millennium.NY: Penguin Books.
Andren, G., L. Ericsson, R. Ohlsson, & T. Tannsjo. (1978). Rhetoric and Ideology in Advertising. Stockholm: AB Grafiska.
Bagdikian, B. H. (1997). The media monoploly. Boston: Beacon.
Bainbridge, J. (1998). Baby-boomers: a generation vexed. Marketing, 7 May, 20-1.
Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention,
efficiency, and control in social cognition. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.),
Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 3–51). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Barnett B. (2006). Focusing on the Next Picture: Feminist Scholarship as a Foundation for Teaching about Ageism in the Academy. NWSA Journal, 18(1), Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas.
Birren , J . E. (1988). A contribution to the theory of the psychology of aging: As a cou nterpa rt to development. In J. E. Birren & V. L. Bengtson (Eds.), Emergent theories of aging, (pp. 153–176). NY: Springer.
Barthes, R. (1957). Mythologies. Paris: Editions de Seuil. (English translation, Paladin Books, 1973).
Bayer, K. (2005). Cosmetic Surgery and Cosmetics: Redefining Appearance of Age. Generations, 29(3), 13-18.
Bazzini, D., et al. (1997). The Aging Woman in Popular Film: Underrepresented, Unattractive, Unfriendly, and Unintelligent. Sex Roles, 36, 531-534.
Beauty and Body Image in the Media. (2005). Media Awareness Network. Retrieved 8 July 2005 from http://www.media-awareness.ca.
Bell, J. (1992). In search of a discourse on aging: The elderly on television. The Gerontologist, 32, 305–311.
Bignell, J. (1997). Media Semiotics, an introduction. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Binstock, R. H. (2005). Old-Age Policies, Politics, and Ageism. Generations, 29(3).
Binstock, R. H. (1983). The aged as scapegoat. The Gerontologist, 23, 136–143.
Boyd, J. W., & Dowd, J. J. (1988). The diffuseness of age. Social Behavior, 3, 85–103.
Braithwaite, V. (1992). The ageing experience: Loss, threat, or challenge? In P. Heaven (Ed.), Life Span Development (pp. 268–301). Sydney: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Braithwaite, V. (1986). Old age stereotypes: Reconciling contradictions. Journal of Gerontology, 41, 353–360.
Bramlett-Solomon, S., & Subramanian, G. (1999). Nowhere Near Picture Perfect: Images of the Elderly in Life and Ebony Magazine Ads, 1990–1997. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 76(3), 565–572.
Branco, K. J., & Williamson, J. B. (1982). Stereotyping and the life cycle: Views of aging and the aged. In A. G. Miller (Ed.), In the eye of the beholder: Contemporary issues in stereotyping (pp. 364–410). New York: Praeger.
Brewer, M. B. (1988). A dual process model of impression formation. In T. K. Srull
& R. S. Wyer (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 65–76). Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Brock, F. (2003). Assisted Living to Viagra: A Dictionary Nod to Aging. The New York Times, November 9.
Brookmeyer, R., & Kawas, C. (1998). Projections of Alzheimer’s disease in the United States and the public health impact of delaying disease onset. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 1337–1342.
Budgeon, S. & Currie, D. H. (1995). From feminism to postfeminism: Women’s liberation in fashion magazines. Women’s Studies International Forum, 18(2), 173-186.
Butler, R. N. (1975). Why Survive? Being Old in America. New York: Harper & Row.
Butler, R. N. (1969). Age-ism: Another form of bigotry. The Gerontologist, 9, 243–246.
Butler, M., & Paisley, W. (1980). Women and the Mass Media: Sourcebook for Research and Action. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Butler, R., Lewis, M., & Sunderland, T. (1991). Aging and mental health: Positive psychosocial and biomedical approaches. New York: Macmillan.
Byrd, M., & Breuss, T. (1992). Perceptions of sociological and psychological age norms by young, middle-aged, and elderly New Zealanders. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 34, 145–163.
Bytheway, B. (1995). Ageism. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Calasanti, T. (2003). Theorizing Age Relations. In S. Biggs, A. Lowenstein, & J. Hendricks (Eds.), The Need for Theory: Critical Approaches to Social Gerontology (pp..199–218). NY: Baywood Press.
Calasanti, T., Slevin, K., & King N. (2006). Ageism and Feminism: From ‘Et Centera’ to Center. NWSA Journal, 18(1).
Calasanti, T. M., & Slevin K. F. (2001). Gender, Social Inequalities, and Aging. Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press.
Cassata, M., & Irwin, B. J. (1997). Young by Day: The Older Person in Daytime Serial Drama. In H. S. Noor Al-Deen (Ed.), Cross-Cultural Communication and Aging in the United States (pp.215–30). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Chomsky, N. (1989). Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies. London: Pluto Press.
Comfort, A. (1977). A good age. London: Mitchell Beazley.
Cook, G. (1992). Discourse of Advertising. London: Routledge.
Cooley, S., Deitch, I. M., Harper, M. S., Hinrichsen, G., Lopez, M. A., & Molinari, V.A. (1998). What practitioners should know about working with older adults. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 29, 413–427.
Currie, D. (1994). Going Green: Mythologies of Consumption in Adolescent Magazines. Youth and Society, 26(1).
Davis, R. H., & Davis, J. A. (1985). TV’s image of the elderly: A practical guide for change. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Co.
Davis, J. J. (1994). Ethics in advertising decision making: implications for reducing the incidence of deceptive advertising. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 28(2), 380-403.
Dateline NBC. 2001. 6 March.
de Beauvoir, S. (1972). The Coming of Age (P. O’ Brian,Trans.) NY: G. P.
Putnam’s Son. (Original work published 1970).
de Beauvoir, S. (1952). The Second Sex. NY: Knopf.
Diehl, M., Coyle, N., & Labouvie-Vief, G. (1996). Age and sex differences in strategies of coping and defense across the life span. Psychology and Aging, 11, 127–139.
Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276–302.
Donlon, M. M., Ashman, O., & Levy, B. R. (2005). Re-Vision of Older Television Characters: A Stereotype-Awareness Intervention. Journal of Social Issues, 61(2), 307-319.
Dychtwald, K. (2000). Age Power. How the 21st Century Will be Ruled by the New Old. NY: Tarcher.
Dyer, G. (1982). Advertising as Communication. London: Metheun.
Edwards, P. (2001). Health and Ageing: A Discussion Paper. World Health Organization. Retrieved 23 Sept. 2006, from http://www.comminit.com.
Edwards, K., & Wetzler, J. (1998). Too young to be old: The roles of self threat and psychological distancing in social categorization of the elderly. Unpublished manuscript.
Erikson, E. H. (1986). Vital involvement in old age. NY: Norton.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. NY: Norton.
Estes, C. L. (1979). The aging enterprise. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ewen, S. (1988). All Consuming Images: The Politics of Style in Contemporary Culture. NY: Basic Books.
Ewen, S. (1976). Captains of Consciousness. NY: McGraw-Hill.
Fatt, A. (1967). The danger of “local” international advertising. Journal of Marketing, 31, 60-62.
Fiske, J. (1989). Reading the popular. Boston: Unwin Hyman.
Fiske, J. & Hartley, J. (1978). Reading television. London: Methuen.
Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum of impression formation, from
category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and
motivation on attention and interpretation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in
experimental social psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 1–74).NY: Academic Press.
Flint, J. (1980). The Old Folks. Forbes, February 18, pp.51-56.
Fowles, J. (1996). Advertising and Popular Culture. London: Sage.
Friedan, B. (1993). The Fountain of Age. NY: Simon and Schuster.
Frith, K. (1997). Undressing the Ad: Reading Culture in Advertising. In K. Frith (Ed.) Undressing the Ad: Reading Culture in Advertising. NY: Peter Lang.
Frith & Mueller (2003). Advertising and Societies: Global Issues. NY: Peter Lang Press.
Gannon, L. R. (1999). Women and Aging: Transcending the Myths. London: Routledge.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Signorielli, N., & Morgan, M. (1980). Aging with Television: Images on Television Drama and Conceptions of Social Reality. Journal of Communication, 30(1), 37–47.
Giles, H., & Williams, A. (1994). Patronising the young: Forms and evaluations. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 39, 33–53.
Goffman, E. (1968). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books.
Goldman, R. (1992). Subjectivity in a Bottle: Commodity and Advertising Form. Reading Ads Socially. London: Routledge.
Goldman, R., & Papson, S. (1996). Sign Wars: The Cluttered Landscape of Advertising. NY: Guilford Press.
Gossage, H. L. (1967). The Gilded Bough: Magic and Advertising. In F. Matson, & A. Montague (Eds.), The Human Dialogue. NY: Free Press.
Green, B. S. (1993). Gerontology and the Construction of Old Age. NY: Aldine.
Greenberg, B. S., & Collette, L. (1997). The Changing Faces on TV: A Demographic Analysis of Network TV’s New Seasons, 1966–1992. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 41(1), 1–13.
Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1986). The causes and consequences of a need for self-esteem: A terror management theory. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), Public self and private self (pp. 188–212). NY: Springer.
Greenberg, J., Schimel, J., & Martens, A. (2002). Ageism: Denying the face of the future. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older persons (pp. 27–48). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Gullette, M. M. (2004). Aged by Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gullette, M. M. (December 2000, November ). Does age matter? Let us coun t the ways via age studies. Aging Today XXI (6), 3,4.
Gusfield, J. R. (1981). The Culture of Public Problems. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Hagestad, G. O., & Uhlenberg, P. (2005). The Social Separation of Old and Young: A Root of Ageism. Journal of Social Issues, 61(2), 343-360.
Hamilton, D. L., & Sherman, J. W. (1994). Stereotypes. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull
(Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 1–68). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hareven, T. K. (1995) Changing images of aging and the social construction of the life course. In M. Featherstone and A. Wernick (Eds.), Imaging of Aging (pp. 119-134). London: Routledge,
Hatch, L. R. (2005.) Gender and Ageism. Generations, 29(3), 19-24.
Havighurst , R. J . (1973). History of developmental psychology: Socialization and personality developmen t. In P. B. Baltes & K. W. Schaie (Eds.) Life-span development psychology: Personality and socialization, (pp. 3–24). NY: Academic Press.
Hawthorne, M. D. (1997). ‘The Sin for Which There Is No Forgiveness:’ Growing Old in Gay Novels. Literature Interpretation Theory, 7(4), 269–283.
Henderson, J. W. (1997). Issues in the Medical Treatment of Elderly Women. Journal of Women and Aging, 9(1–2). Retrieved 6 July 2006, from the Gender Watch database
Hendricks, J. (2003). Structure and Identity-Mind the Gap: Toward a Personal Resource Model of Successful Aging. In S. Biggs, A. Lowenstein, & J. Hendricks (Eds), The Need for Theory: Critical Approaches to Social Gerontology (pp. 63–87). NY: Baywood Press.
Hess, B. (1974). Stereotypes of the aged. Journal of Communication, Autumn, 76-85.
Jhally, S. (1995). Gender, Race and Class in Media. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Janowitz, M. (1978). The Last Half-Century. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Jerrome, D. (1992). Good company: an anthropological study of people in groups. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Johnson, R. L., & Cobb-Walgren, C. J. (1994). Aging and the problem of television clutter. Journal of Advertising Research, 34(4), 54-66.
Kalish, R. A. (1979). The New Ageism and the Failure Models: A Polemic. Gerontologist, 19, 398-407.
Katz, S. (2001/2002). Growing Older Without Aging? Positive Aging, Anti-Ageism,
and Anti-Aging. Generations, 25(4), 27–32.
Kellner, D. (1995). Cultural Studies, Multiculturalism, and Media Culture. In G. Dines & J. M. Humez.(Eds.), Gender, Race, and Class in Media: A Text-Reader (pp.5–17). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Kellner D. (1990). Advertising and Consumer Culture. In J. Downing et al.
(Eds.), Questioning the Media: A Critical Introduction. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Kite, M. E., Stockdale, G. D., Whitley, B. E., & Johnson, B. T. (2005). Attitudes Toward Younger and Older Adults: An Updated Meta-Analytic Review. Journal of Social Issues, 61(2), 241-266.
Kite, M. E., & Johnson, B. T. (1988). Attitudes towards older and younger adults: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 3, 233–244.
Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (1996). Reading Images. London: Routledge.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson , M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind and itschallenge to Western thought. NY: Basic.
Langmeyer, L. (1993). Age role portrayals in magazine advertisements: a content analysis. In J. H. Summery et al. (Eds), Theories and Concepts in Era of Change (pp. 286-289). Carbondale, IL: Southern Marketing Association Proceedings.
Laws, G. (1995). Understanding Ageism: Lessons From Feminism and Postmodernism. The Gerontologist, 35(1), 112–118.
Laz, C. (2003). Age Embodied. Journal of Aging Studies, 17, 503–519.
Leiss, W., Kline, S., & Jhally, S. (1990). Social Communication in Advertising: Persons, Products and Images of Well-Being. London: Routledge.
Leiss, W., Kline, S. & Jhally, S. (1990). Social Communication in Advertising (2nd ed.). Scarborough, Ontario: Nelson.
Lindblom, Charles. (1977). Politics and Markets: The World’s Political-Economic Systems. NY: Basic Books.
Lipscomb, V. B. (2006). We need a theoretical base: Cynthia Rich, Women’s Studies, and Ageism. NWSA Journal, 18(1).
Longino, Jr., C. F. (1994, August ). Myths of an agin g America. American Demographics. [On-line]. Available: http://www.demographics.com/publications/AD/94.
Lysonski, S., & Pollay, R. W. (1990). Advertising sexism is forgiven, but not forgotten: historical, cross-cultural and individual differences in criticism and purchase boycott intentions. International Journal of Advertising, 9(4), 317-330.
Mander, J. (1977). Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television. NY: William Morrow.
McCullagh, C. (2002). Media Power: A Sociological Introduction. Hampshire, UK: Palgrave.
McHugh, K. E. (2000). The ‘ageless self’? Emplacement of identities in Sun Belt
retirement communities. Journal of Aging Studies, 14, 103–115.
McRobbie, A. (1991). Feminism and youth culture. London: Mcmillan.
Mehlman, M. J., Binstock, R. H., Juengst, E. T., Ponsaran, R. S., & Whitehouse, P. J. (2004). Anti-Aging Medicine: Can Consumers Be Better Protected? The Gerontologist, 44(3), 304–310.
Miller, C. (1993, December 6). Image of seniors improves in ads. Marketing News, p. 8-11.
Miller, R. (1997). When did you last wear the jeans? Goodtimes, December/January, 28-31
Minichiello, V., Browne, J., & Kendig, H. (2000). Perceptions and Consequences of Ageism: Views of Older People. Ageing and Society, 20(3), 253–278.
Moschis, G., Euehun, L., & Mathur, A. (1997). Targeting the mature market: opportunities and challenges. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 14(4), 282-294.
Mroczek, D. K., & Kolarz, C. M. (1998). The effect of age on positive and negative affect: A developmental perspective on happiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1333–1349.
Myles, J. (1986) Citizenship at the Crossroads: The Future of Old Age Security. In D.V. Tassel & P.N. Stearns (Eds) Old Age in a Bureaucratic Society (pp. 193-216). NY: Greenwood.
Nahemow, L., McCliisky-Fawcett, K., & McGhee, P. (Eds.) (1986). Humor and Aging. New York: Academic Press.
Nelson, T. D. (Ed.). (2002). Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older
adults.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Neugarten, B. L. (1974). Age Groups in American Society and the Rise of the Young-Old. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 415, 187-98.
Ng, S. H., Giles, H., & Moody, J. (1991). Information-seeking triggered by age. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 33, 269–277.
Nussbaum, J. F., Pecchioni, L. L., Robinson, J. D., & Thompson, T.L. (2000). Communication and Aging. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Oakley, A. (1975). Woman’s work: The housewife, past and present. NY: Pantheon.
Oates, B., Shufeldt, L. and Vaught, B. (1996). A psychographic study of the elderly and retail store attributes. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 13(6), 14-28.
O’Barr, W. M. (1994). Culture and the Ad: Exploring Otherness in the World of Ad. Boulder: Westview Press.
O’Reilly, E. M. (1997). Decoding the Cultural Stereotypes About Aging: New Perspectives on Aging Talk and Aging Issues. NY: Garland Publishing.
Overall C. (2006). Old Age and Ageism, Impairment and Ableism: Exploring the Conceptual and Material Connections. NWSA Journal, 18, 126-137.
Overall, C. (1998). A Feminist I: Reflections From Academia. Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press.
Palmore, E. (2005). Three Decades of Research on Ageism. Generations, 29(3), 87-90.
Palmore, E. (1999). Ageism: Negative and positive (2nd ed.). NY: Springer.
Palmore, E. B. (1990). Ageism: Negative and Positive. NY: Springer Publishing
Company.
Palmore, E. (1982). Attitudes toward the aged: What we know and need to know. Research on Aging, 4, 333–348.
Palmore, E. (1971). Attitudes Toward Aging as Shown by Humor. Gerontologist, 11, I8IH
Pampel, F. C. (1998). Aging, Social Inequality, and Public Policy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
Paterson, K., & Hughes, B. (1999). Disability Studies and Phenomenology: The Carnal Politics of Everyday Life. Disability and Society, 14(5), 597–610.
Pepper, T. & Adam, K. (2006). The New Science of Cosmetics, Newsweek International, September 3.
Perricone, N. (2000). The Wrinkle Cure. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Books.
Peterson, R. T. (1992). The depiction of senior citizens in magazine advertisements: a content analysis. Journal of Business Ethics, 11, 701-706.
Peterson, R. T., & Ross, D. T. (1997). A content analysis of the portrayal of mature individuals in television commercials. Journal of Business Ethics, 16(4), 425-33.
Pollay, R. (1987). On the value of reflections on the values of the distorted mirror. Journal of Marketing, 50(3)
Pollay, R. (1986). The distorted mirror: reflections on the unintended consequences of advertising. Journal of Marketing, 50(2).
Portnoy, E. J. (1997). Older Adults as Cultural Figures in Aging. In H. S. Noor Al-Deen, (Ed.) Cross-Cultural Communication and Aging in the United States, (pp.23–41). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Rabbitt, P. (1993). Does it all go together when it goes? The nineteenth Bartlett Memorial Lecture. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46A (3), 385–434.
Richards B., MacRury, I., & Botterill, J. (2000). The Dynamics of Advertising. Amsterdam: Hardwood.
Riley, M. W. (1996). Age stratificat ion. Encyclopedia of Gerontology, I, 81.
Riley, M. W., Kahn, R. L., & Foner, A. (1994). Age and structutral lag: Society’s failure to provide meaningful opportunities in work, family, and leisure. NY: Wiley.
Rosel, N. (2001). Inconspicuous Consumption: How a Small Sample of Rural Elders See Images in the Media. Generations, 25(3), 47.
Rowe, J. W., & Kahn, R. L. (1998). Successful Aging. NY: Pantheon Books.
Rowe, J. W., & Kahn, R. L. (1987). Human aging: Usual and successful. Science, 237, 143–149.
Ruddick, S. (1999). Virtues and Age. In M. U. Walker (Ed.), Mother Time Women, Aging and Ethics (pp. 45–60). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
Ruffenach, G. (2000, November, December). Power politics-Myths, realities of ‘senior voting bloc’ exposed . Aging Today, XXI (6), 1,4,6.
Ryan, J. W. (1999). Media and Society: The Production of Culture in the Mass Media. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Savishinsky, J. (2000). Breaking the Watch: The Meanings of Retirement in America. NY: Cornell University Press.
Schimany, P. (2003). Die Alterung der Gesellschaft. Ursachen und Folgen des demographischen Umbruchs. Frankfurt.
Seiter, E. (1992). Semiotics, structuralism, and television. In C. A. Robert (Ed.). Channel of discourse reassembled: Television and contemporary culture.
London: Routledge.
Sharton, M. (1991). Writing in the Upward Years: May Sarton. Interview by Stephen Robitaille. In E. G. Ingersoll (Ed.), Conversations with May Sarton (pp. 193–199). Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.
Shields, R. (1992). Spaces for the subject of consumption. In R. Shields (Ed.),
Smith, L. (1992). The Tyranny of America’s Old. Fortune, 125(I), 68-72.
Sneed, J. R., & Whitbourne S. K. (2005). Models of the Aging Self. Journal of Social Issues, 61(2), 375-388.
Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (1991). A terror management theory of social behavior: The psychological functions of self-esteem and world-views. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 91–159). NY: Academic Press.
Sontag, S. (1972). The Double Standard of Aging. Saturday Review of the Society, 55, 29–38. Rpt. in M. Rainbolt & J. Fleetwood (Eds.), On the Contrary: Essays by Men and Women (1983, pp. 99–112). Albany: State University of New York Press.
Stern, B. (1992). Feminist Literary Theory and Advertising Research: A New ‘Reading’ of the Text and the Consumer. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 14(1), 9-21.
Stearns, P. J. (1986). Old age family conflict: The perspective of the past. In K. A. Pillemer & R. S. Wolf (Eds.), Elder abuse: Conflict in the family (pp. 3–24). Dover, MA: Auburn House Publishing.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W.G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Tallant, C. E. (1997). Images of Elders in Traditional Literature. In H. S. Noor Al-Deen (Ed.), Cross-Cultural Communication and Aging in the United States, (pp.183–199). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Thornton J. E. (2002). MYTHS OF AGING OR AGEIST STEREOTYPES. Educational Gerontology, 28, 301-312.
Titmuss, R. M. (1963). Essays on the Welfare State. London: Allen and Unwin.
Tuchman, G. (1978). Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality. NY: The Free Press.
Twigg, J. (2004). The Body, Gender, and Age: Feminist Insights in Social Gerontology. Journal of Aging Studies, 18(1), 59–73.
United Nations. (1995). Social Development, including Questions Relating to the World Social Situation and to Youth, Ageing, Disabled Persons and the Family, Report of the United Nations Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development, A/50/1114.
U.S. Senate, Special Committee on Aging. (2001). Swindlers, Hucksters and Snake Oil Salesman: Hype and Hope Marketing Anti-Aging Products to Seniors. (Serial No. 107–14). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
van Zoonen, L. (1994). Feminist media studies. London: Thousand Oaks.
Vesperi, M. D. (2001). Media, Marketing, and Images of the Older Person in the Information Age.(cover story). Generations, 25(3), 5.
Walker, A. (1986). The Social Creation of Poverty and Dependency in Old Age. Journal of Social Policy, 9: 40-49.
Wendell, S. (1996). The Rejected Body: Feminist Philosophical Reflections on Disability. NY: Routledge.
Wernick, A. (1991). Advertising as Ideology. In Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (Ch. 2), Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Whitbourne, S. K., & Hulicka, I. M. (1990). Ageism in undergraduate psychology texts. American Psychologist, 45(10), 1127–1136.
Williamson, J. (1978). Decoding advertisements: Ideology and meaning in advertising. London: Marion Boyars.
Williams, R. (1980). Advertising: The Magic System. In Problems in Materialism and Culture. London: New Left Books.
Williams, R. (1977). Marxism and Literature. NY: Oxford University Press.
Wilson, G. (2000). Understanding Old Age. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Wolfe, D. B. (1998). Boomer humor. American Demographics, 20(7), 22-23.
Woodward K. (2003). Against wisdom: the social politics of anger and aging. Journal of Aging Studies, 17, 55-67.
World Population Ageing 1950–2050. (2001). NY: United Nations. Retrieved 8 July 2006, from http://www.un.org.
Zhou, N., & Chen, M. Y. T. (1992). Marginal life after 49: a preliminary study of the portrayal of older people in Canadian consumer magazine advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 11, 343-354.