為吸引消費者的目光，過去廣告實務普遍認為高度外表吸引力的代言人，能為廣告帶來正面效益。但藉由社會比較理論（social comparison theory）探討代言人效果的研究，卻發現觀眾和廣告中的高度吸引力代言人進行比較與否，將產生兩極化的廣告反應，且過去多發現向上比較之負面結果。本研究在代言人具有高度外表吸引力的情境下，鎖定女性消費者，針對可能引發消費者對廣告代言人進行社會比較之代言人相似性、產品之吸引力相關性進行探討，並檢視羨慕（envy）在廣告效果作用過程中的角色，彌補過去研究較少討論消費者在社會比較後所可能帶來正面激勵作用之不足，並進一步測試可能影響羨慕類型的干擾變數（產品目標達成性、代言人美感類型），欲釐清引發良性羨慕與惡意忌妒之因素，以及羨慕情緒對於消費者廣告態度、產品態度與購買意願的可能影響。
　　本研究採用2（代言人相似性）×2（產品吸引力相關性）×2（產品目標達成性）×2（代言人美感類型）之四因子受測者間實驗設計。研究結果發現，代言人相似性與產品吸引力相似性可提升消費者向上社會比較程度與羨慕感受，且兩者對於向上社會比較程度的效果，呈現非可加性關係；此外，向上社會比較程度正向影響消費者的整體羨慕與負面情感，並可同時喚起良性羨慕與惡意忌妒，對於整體廣告效果有正向影響力；產品目標達成性不會直接干擾消費者向上社會比較所引發的羨慕類型，僅在性感類型代言人的廣告中存在干擾效果；而代言人美感類型會干擾消費者向上社會比較所引發的羨慕類型，鄰家女孩代言人會使消費者產生良性羨慕，進而提升廣告效果，而性感型代言人搭配高目標達成性產品會同時產生兩種類型的羨慕，對廣告效果有正向影響，但搭配低目標達成性產品僅會產生惡意忌妒，並降低廣告效果；最後，羨慕類型確實為向上社會比較影響廣告效果反應的重要中介變數。

In advertising practices, highly attractive spokespersons are commonly believed that they can effectively attract audience’s attention and generate favorable ad effects. However, previous spokesperson research based on social comparison theory has found that whether consumers compare their appearance with that of highly attractive spokespersons leads to entirely different advertising responses, and upward comparison usually results in negative consequences. Focused on the advertising contexts with highly attractive female spokespersons, this research explores the effects of possible determinants (i.e., spokesperson similarity and attractiveness-relevant products) on female consumers’ degree of social comparison. To better understand the inconsistent effects of highly attractive spokespersons, this research also examines the role of envy in the advertising-effectiveness process, and tests the possible moderators on envy types (i.e., goal attainability of product and types of beauty) for recognizing the causes to evoke benign or malicious envy. Furthermore, the possible influences of envy emotions on consumers’ ad attitudes, product attitudes, and purchase intention are also explored.
　　The study consisted of a 2(spokesperson similarity) × 2(attractive relevance of product) × 2(goal attainability of product) × 2(types of beauty) between-subject experimental design. Results reveal that similar spokespersons and attractiveness-relevant products raise the degree of upward comparison and envy emotion for highly attractive spokespersons, but showing the non-additive interactive relationship on the degree of upward comparison. Additionally, the degree of upward comparison positively affects the participants’ general envy emotion and negative feelings, evoking benign and malicious envy simultaneously and generating positive ad effects. Attractive relevance of products is unable to directly moderate the types of envy resulted from upward comparison, but it works when the spokespersons have the beauty type of sex kitten. The types of beauty moderate the types of envy generated by upward comparison. Under the condition of the type of girl-next-door, upward comparison increases benign envy and positively influences advertising effectiveness. For sex-kitten typed spokespersons paired with high goal-attainability products, upward comparison produces the two types of envy simultaneously and has positive impacts on advertising effectiveness. However, for sex-kitten typed spokespersons paired with low goal-attainability products, upward comparison only generates stronger malicious envy toward the spokespersons and decreases advertising effectiveness. Finally, this study demonstrates that the types of envy mediate the advertising effectiveness generated by upward comparison.

第一章 緒論 1
第一節 研究背景 1
第二節 研究動機與問題 3
第三節 研究目的 7
第四節 研究範圍 8
第二章 文獻探討 9
第一節 社會比較理論 9
第二節 羨慕理論 16
第三節 廣告代言人 24
第四節 吸引力相關產品 31
第五節 目標達成性 35
第六節 美感類型 39
第三章 研究架構與研究假說 44
第一節 研究架構 44
第二節 研究假說 45
第四章 研究方法 53
第一節 樣本與實驗設計 53
第二節 實驗刺激與前測 54
第三節 實驗程序 60
第四節 衡量變數 61
第五章 資料分析 66
第一節 研究樣本分析 66
第二節 信度分析 68
第三節 操弄性檢驗 69
第四節 假說驗證 73
第五節 討論 106
第六章 結論與建議 115
第一節 主要研究發現 115
第二節 理論意涵 119
第三節 實務意涵 125
第四節 研究限制與未來研究方向 129
參考文獻 132
附錄 155
前測一問卷 155
前測二問卷 162
前測三問卷 165
正式實驗問卷 175

一、中文部分
今日新聞（2010年4月11日）。網路正妹吸睛　素人口碑勝過明星代言。取自 http://www.nownews.com/2010/04/11/10844-2590357.htm
方正儀（2006）。2006年最佳廣告代言人大調查－魅力與效果。管理雜誌，385。
吳統雄（1985）。態度與行為研究的信度與效度: 理論, 應用, 反省。民意學術專刊, ，夏季號，29-53。
林以正（1999）。華人的社會比較: 比較什么? 與誰比較? 為何比較?。本土心理學研究，11，93-125。
創世紀市場研究機構（2012）。創市際代言人篇。取自 http://www.insightxplorer.com/specialtopic/2012_12_31.htm
賀傳智（2002）。廣告模特兒吸引力與產品類別搭配之廣告效果研究。未出版碩士論文，國立台灣大學商學研究所，臺北市。
廖森貴、鄧筱羚（2003）。廣告代言人, 顧客價值對購買意願之關係研究。知識與價值管理學術研討會，249-258。
練乃華（1990）。推薦式廣告之溝通效果研究。未出版碩士論文，國立台灣大學商學研究所，臺北市。
蔡佳靜（2006）。廣告模特兒外表吸引力的迷思?—不同男性產品之探討。廣告學研究，25，107-129。
錢玉芬、王可欣（2006）。廣告代言人的性格形象對品牌性格的影響-以 Nokia 新款手機的平面廣告為例。廣告學研究，26，27-59。
錢祐達（2010a）。2010第一季最夯廣告代言人。取自http://www.104survey.com/faces/newportal/viewPointCtx.xhtml?researchId=260
錢祐達（2010b）。民眾現身說法，是真是假？(上)。取自http://www.104survey.com/faces/newportal/viewPointCtx.xhtml?researchId=311
簡微庭（2012）。嫉妒的雙面刃－善意嫉妒與惡意嫉妒對消費者產品評價的影響.。未出版碩士論文，國立東華大學，花蓮縣。
蘋果日報（2013年2月17日）。愛美男變多 網購保養品 熱銷狂增2倍。取自 http://www.appledaily.com.tw/appledaily/article/supplement/20130217/34833683/

二、英文部分
ACNielsen. (2007, October). Word-of-mouth the most powerful selling tool: Nielsen Global Survey. from http://www.nielsen.com/media/2007/pr_071001.html
Adams, J. S. (1963). Towards an understanding of inequity. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(5), 422-436.
Ahmed, A., Mir, F. A., & Farooq, O. (2012), Effect of celebrity endorsement on customers’ buying behavior; A perspective from Pakistan, Intedisciplinary. Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 4(5), 584-592.
Alicke, M. D., & Zell, E. (2010). Social comparison and envy. In R. Smith (Ed.), Envy: Theory and research (pp. 73-93). New York: Guilford.
Alicke, M. D., LoSchiavo, F. M., Zerbst, J., & Zhang, S. (1997). The person who outperforms me is a genius: Maintaining perceived competence in upward social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4), 781-789.
Arpan, L. M. (2002). When in Rome? The effects of spokesperson ethnicity on audience evaluation of crisis communication. Journal of Business Communication, 39(3), 314-339.
Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1993). Effects of social comparison direction, threat, and self-esteem on affect, self-evaluation, and expected success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(5), 708-722.
Baker, M. J., & Churchill, G. A. (1977). The impact of physically attractive models on advertising evaluations. Journal of Marketing Research, 14(11), 538-555.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Psychology, 3(3), 265-299.
Bandura, A., & McClelland, D. C. (1977). Social learning theory. Oxford, England: Prentice Hall.
Barulich, D. (2006). Beauty Match-up and Self-concept Congruity in Advertising. University of Florida.
Bedeian, A. G. (1995). Workplace envy. Organizational Dynamics, 23(4), 49-56.
Belch, G. E., Belch, M. A., & Villarreal, A. (1987). Effects of advertising communications: Review of research. Research in Marketing, 9(1), 59-117.
Belk, R.W. (1985). Materialism: Trait aspects of living in the material world. Journal of Consumer Research, 12(4), 265-280.
Ben-Ze'ev, A. (1992). Envy and Inequality. The Journal of Philosophy, 89(11), 551-581.
Berger, J., & Heath, C. (2007). Where consumers diverge from others: Identity signaling and product domains. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(2), 121-134.
Biswas, D., Biswas, A., & Das, N. (2006). The differential effects of celebrity and expert endorsements on consumer risk perceptions. The role of consumer knowledge, perceived congruency, and product technology orientation. Journal of Advertising, 35(2), 17-31.
Bloch, P.H., & Richins, M.L. (2006). You look “mahvelous”: The pursuit of beauty and the marketing concept. Psychology & Marketing, 9(1), 3-15.
Bower, A.B. (2001). Highly attractive models in advertising and the women who loathe them: The implications of negative affect for spokesperson effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 30(3), 51-63.
Bower, A.B., & Landreth, S. (2001). Is beauty best? Highly versus normally attractive models in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 30(1), 1-12.
Brickman, P., & Bulman, R. J. (1977). Pleasure and pain in social comparison. Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives, 149-186.
Brockner, J., & Chen, Y.R. (1996). The moderating roles of self-esteem and self-construal in reaction to a threat to the self: Evidence from the People's Republic of China and the United States. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(3), 603-615.
Brown, J.D., Novick, N.J., Lord, K.A., & Richards, J.M. (1992). When Gulliver travels: Social context, psychological closeness, and self-appraisals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(5), 717-727.
Buss, D. M. (2007). The evolution of human mating. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 39(3), 502-512.
Buunk, B.P., Collins, R.L., Taylor, S.E., VanYperen, N.W., & Dakof, G.A. (1990). The affective consequences of social comparison: either direction has its ups and downs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(6), 1238-1249.
Caballero, M. J., Lumpkin, J. R., & Madden, C. S. (1989). Using physical attractiveness as an advertising tool: An empirical test of the attraction phenomenon. Journal of Advertising Research, 29(August/September), 16-22.
Caballero, M. J., & Pride, W. M. (1984). Selected effects of salesperson sex and attractiveness in direct mail advertisements. Journal of Marketing, 48(1), 94-100.
Chaiken, S. (1979). Communicator physical attractiveness and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(8), 1387-1397.
Chaiken, S. (1986). Physical appearance and social influence. Paper presented at the Physical appearance, stigma, and social behavior: The Ontario Symposium.
Chang, C. C. (2011). Opinions From Others Like You: The Role of Perceived Source Similarity. Media Psychology, 14(4), 415-441.
Cohen-Charash, Y., & Mueller, J. S. (2007). Does perceived unfairness exacerbate or mitigate interpersonal counterproductive work behaviors related to envy? Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(3), 666-680.
Cohen‐Charash, Y. (2009). Episodic envy. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39(9), 2128-2173.
Collins, L.M. (1996). Is reliability obsolete? A commentary on" Are simple gain scores obsolete?". Applied Psychological Measurement, 20(3), 289-292.
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1986). Personality stability and its implications for clinical psychology. Clinical Psychology Review, 6(5), 407-423.
Crano, W.D. (1970). Effects of sex, response order, and expertise in conformity: A dispositional approach. Sociometry, 33(3), 239-252.
Crusius, J., & Mussweiler, T. (2012). When people want what others have: The impulsive side of envious desire. Emotion, 12(1), 142-153.
Cuddy, A. J. C, Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2007). The BIAS map: Behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(4), 631-648.
Cunningham, M. R., Roberts, A. R., Barbee, A. P., Druen, P. B., & Wu, C. H. (1995). " Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole, the same as ours": Consistency and variability in the cross-cultural perception of female physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 261-279.
Debevec, K., Thomas, J. M., & Jerome, B. K. (1986). Physical attractiveness, message evaluation, and compliance: a structural examination. Psychological Reports, 58(2), 503-508.
DeShields, O., & Kara, A. (2000). The persuasive effect of spokesperson similarity moderated by source credibility. American Marketing Association Education Proceedings, 11, 132-143.
Diener, Ed. (1984). Subjective Well-Being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(5), 542-575.
Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24(3), 285-290.
Duarte, José L. (2011). The Effects of Scarcity and Self-Esteem on the Experience of Envy. Arizona State University.
Eagly, A.H., Ashmore, R.D., Makhijani, M.G., & Longo, L.C. (1991). What is beautiful is good, but…: A meta-analytic review of research on the physical attractiveness stereotype. Psychological Bulletin; Psychological Bulletin, 110(1), 109-128.
Ekman, Paul. (1999). Facial expressions. Handbook of cognition and emotion, 16, 301-320.
Englis, B. G., Solomon, M. R., & Ashmore, R. D. (1994). Beauty before the eyes of beholders: The cultural encoding of beauty types in magazine advertising and music television. Journal of Advertising, 23(2), 49-64.
Feather, NT, & Sherman, R. (2002). Envy, resentment, schadenfreude, and sympathy: Reactions to deserved and undeserved achievement and subsequent failure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(7), 953-961.
Feick, L., & Higie, R.A. (1992). The effects of preference heterogeneity and source characteristics on ad processing and judgements about endorsers. Journal of Advertising, 21(2) 9-24.
Felicio, D.M., & Miller, C.T. (1994). Social Comparison in Medical School: What Students Say about Gender and Similarity. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 15(3), 277-296.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human relations, 7(2), 117-140.
Fiske, Susan T. (2010). Envy up, scorn down: how comparison divides us. American Psychologist, 65(8), 698-706.
Folkes, V. S. (1988). Recent attribution research in consumer behavior: A review and new directions. Journal of Consumer Research, 14(4), 548-565.
Folkman, Susan. (1984). Personal control and stress and coping processes: a theoretical analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 46(4), 839-852.
Foxall, G. R., & Goldsmith, R. E. (1994). Consumer psychology for marketing. London: Routledge.
Frank, R.H. (2001). Luxury fever: Why money fails to satisfy in an era of excess: New York: Free Press.
Franzoi, Stephen L, Vasquez, Kris, Sparapani, Erin, Frost, Katherine, Martin, Jessica, & Aebly, Megan. (2012). Exploring Body Comparison Tendencies Women Are Self-Critical Whereas Men Are Self-Hopeful. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36(1), 99-109.
Freedman, R. J. (1986). Beauty bound. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Freiden, J.B. (1984). Advertising spokesperson effects: An examination of endorser type and gender on two audiences. Journal of Advertising Research, 24(5), 33-41.
Fried, Y., & Slowik, L. H. (2004). Enriching Goal-Setting Theory with Time: An Integrated Approach. Academy of management Review, 29(3), 404-422.
Friedman, H. H., & Friedman, L. (1979). Endorser Effectiveness by Product Type. Journal of Advertising Research, 19(October), 63-71.
Frith, K., Shaw, P., & Cheng, H. (2005). The Construction of Beauty: A Cross‐Cultural Analysis of Women's Magazine Advertising. Journal of Communication, 55(1), 56-70.
Gibbons, F.X. (1986). Social comparison and depression: Company's effect on misery. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(1), 140-148.
Gibbons, F.X., & Buunk, B.P. (1999). Individual differences in social comparison: development of a scale of social comparison orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(1), 129-142.
Gilbert, D.T., Giesler, R.B., & Morris, K.A. (1995). When comparisons arise. Journal of personality and social psychology, 69(2), 227-236.
Goethals, G.R. (1986). Social Comparison Theory Psychology from the Lost and Found. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12(3), 261-278.
Goethals, G.R., & Darley, J.M. (1977). Social comparison theory: An attributional approach Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives (pp. 259-278). DC: Hemisphere: Washington.
Goldsmith, Ronald E, Lafferty, Barbara A, & Newell, Stephen J. (2000). The impact of corporate credibility and celebrity credibility on consumer reaction to advertisements and brands. Journal of Advertising, 29(3), 43-54.
Goodman, J. R., Morris, J. D., & Sutherland, J. C. (2008). Is beauty a joy forever? Young women's emotional responses to varying types of beautiful advertising models. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 85(1), 147-168.
Gulas, C.S., & McKeage, K. (2000). Extending social comparison: An examination of the unintended consequences of idealized advertising imagery. Journal of Advertising, 29(2), 17-28.
Häfner, M., & Trampe, D. (2009). When thinking is beneficial and when it is not: The effects of thin and round advertising models. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19(4), 619-628.
Hafner, M. (2004). How dissimilar others may still resemble the self: Assimilation and contrast after social comparison. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14(1), 187-196.
Halliwell, E., & Dittmar, H. (2004). Does size matter? The impact of model's body size on women's body-focused anxiety and advertising effectiveness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(1), 104-122.
Harter, Susan. (1993). Visions of self: Beyond the me in the mirror. Developmental perspectives on motivation, 40, 99-144.
Haslam, Nick, & Bornstein, Brian H. (1996). Envy and jealousy as discrete emotions: A taxometric analysis. Motivation and Emotion, 20(3), 255-272.
Hassenzahl, M. (2004). The interplay of beauty, goodness, and usability in interactive products. Human–Computer Interaction, 19(4), 319-349.
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Heidrich, S.M., & Ryff, C.D. (1993). The role of social comparisons processes in the psychological adaptation of elderly adults. Journal of Gerontology, 48(3), 127-136.
Heinberg, L.J., & Thompson, J.K. (1995). Body image and televised images of thinness and attractiveness: A controlled laboratory investigation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14(4), 325-338.
Higgins, E.T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: a theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319-340.
Hill, S. E., & Buss, D. M. (2006). Envy and positional bias in the evolutionary psychology of management. Managerial and Decision Economics, 27(2), 131-143.
Hill, S. E., DelPriore, D. J., & Vaughan, P. W. (2011). The cognitive consequences of envy: Attention, memory, and self-regulatory depletion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(4), 653-666.
Hovland, C.I., Janis, I.L., & Kelley, H.H. (1953). Communication and persuasion; psychological studies of opinion change.
Huang, W. S, Hsieh, T. F., & Chen, H. S. (2011). The advertisement effectiveness of animated spokes-characters. African Journal of Business Management, 5(23), 9971-9978.
Huckeba, J. (2005). Emotional Response to Beauty. University of Florida.
Irving, Lori M. (1990). Mirror images: Effects of the standard of beauty on the self-and body-esteem of women exhibiting varying levels of bulimic symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(2), 230-242.
Jones, E. E., & Davis, K. E. (1965). The actor and the observer: Divergent perceptions of the causes of behavior Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior (pp. 219-266). Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
Joseph, W. B. (1982). The credibility of physically attractive communicators: A review. Journal of Advertising, 11(3), 15-24.
Kahle, L. R. (1984). Attitudes and social adaptation: A person-situation interaction approach. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Kahle, L.R., & Homer, P.M. (1985). Physical attractiveness of the celebrity endorser: A social adaptation perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 11, 954-961.
Kamins, M. A., Brand, M. J., Hoeke, S. A., & Moe, J. C. (1989). Two-sided versus one-sided celebrity endorsements: The impact on advertising effectiveness and credibility. Journal of Advertising, 18(2), 4-10.
Kamins, M.A. (1990). An investigation into the" match-up" hypothesis in celebrity advertising: When beauty may be only skin deep. Journal of Advertising, 19(1), 4-13.
Kamins, Michael A, & Gupta, Kamal. (1994). Congruence between spokesperson and product type: A matchup hypothesis perspective. Psychology & Marketing, 11(6), 569-586.
Kelley, H. H. (1967). Attribution theory in social psychology. Paper presented at the Nebraska symposium on motivation.
Kelman, H. C. (1961). Processes of opinion change. Public opinion quarterly, 33(Spring), 57-78.
Khan, Abdul Karim, Peretti, Jean-Marie, & Quratulain, Samina. (2009). Envy and counterproductive work behaviors: is more fairness always preferred. Paper presented at the Proceeding of the 20th AGRH Conference, Toulouse, France.
Kimmel, S. B., & Mahalik, J. R. (2004). Measuring masculine body ideal distress: Development of a measure. International Journal of Men's Health, 3(1), 1-10.
Kivetz, R., Urminsky, O., & Zheng, Y. (2006). The goal-gradient hypothesis resurrected: Purchase acceleration, illusionary goal progress, and customer retention. Journal of Marketing Research, 43(1), 39-58.
Klein, W.M., & Kunda, Z. (1993). Maintaining self-serving social comparisons: Biased reconstruction of one's past behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19(6), 732-739.
Krasnova, Hanna, Wenninger, Helena, Widjaja, Thomas, & Buxmann, Peter. (2013). Envy on Facebook: A Hidden Threat to Users' Life Satisfaction? Paper presented at the Wirtschaftsinformatik.
Kruglanski, A.W., & Mayseless, O. (1990). Classic and current social comparison research: Expanding the perspective. Psychological bulletin, 108(2), 195-208.
Labre, M. P. (2005). Burn fat, build muscle: A content analysis of Men's Health and Men's Fitness. International Journal of Men's Health, 4(2), 187-200.
Lakoff, R.T., & Scherr, R.L. (1984). Face value: The politics of beauty: Routledge & Kegan Paul Boston.
Larson, K. A. (2009). HE SAYS, SHE SAYS: A COMPARISON OF MEN AND WOMEN’S PERCEPTIONS OF THE APPEAL OF FEMALE MODELS IN ADVERTISING. University of Florida.
Latteier, C. (1998). Breasts: The women's perspective on an American obsession. New York: Haworth Press.
Leibenstein, H. (1950). Bandwagon, snob, and Veblen effects in the theory of consumers' demand. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 64(2), 183-207.
Lemaine, G. (1974). Social differentiation and social originality. European Journal of Social Psychology, 4(1), 17-52.
Lerner, R. M., Orlos, J. B., & Knapp, J. R. (1976). Physical attractiveness, physical effectiveness, and self-concept in late adolescents. Adolescence; Adolescence, 11(43), 313-326.
Lewis, Laurie, & Scott, Craig. (2006). Communicative responses to malicious envy at work. The University of Texas at Austin.
Li, C. (2010). The Effects of Self-relevance of the Comparison Dimensions and Social Comparison Orientation on Consumers’ Purchase Behavior. Hong Kong Baptist University.
Li, C. (2011). The Effects of Perceived Attainability and Benign Envy on Consumers' Purchase Intention. Paper presented at the AMA Winter Educationrs' Conference.
Lien, N. H., Chou, H. Y., & Chang, C. H. (2012). Advertising Effectiveness and the Match-Up Hypothesis: Examining Spokesperson Sex, Attractiveness Type, and Product Image. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 33(2), 282-300.
Lindsley, D. H., Brass, D. J., & Thomas, J. B. (1995). Efficacy-performance spirals: A multilevel perspective. Academy of Management Review, 20(1), 645-678.
Locke, E. A. (1991). The motivation sequence, the motivation hub, and the motivation core. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 50(1), 288-299.
Locke, E. A. (2000). Motivation by goal setting. Handbook of organizational behavior, 43-56.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance: Prentice-Hall.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American psychologist, 57(9), 705-717.
Lockwood, P., & Kunda, Z. (1997). Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 91-103.
Lwin, M., & Lalwani, A. К. (2006). Impact of English Accents on Advertising Attitudes and Purchase Intentions: With Emphasis on the Effects of Gender, Involvement and Country-of-Origin.
Lyubomirsky, S., & Ross, L. (1997). Hedonic consequences of social comparison: a contrast of happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(6), 1141-1157.
Maddux, J.E., & Rogers, R.W. (1980). Effects of source expertness, physical attractiveness, and supporting arguments on persuasion: A case of brains over beauty. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(2), 235-244.
Maier, G. W., & Brunstein, J. C. (2001). The role of personal work goals in newcomers' job satisfaction and organizational commitment: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(5), 1034-1042.
Martin, M.C., & Gentry, J.W. (1997). Stuck in the model trap: The effects of beautiful models in ads on female pre-adolescents and adolescents. Journal of Advertising, 26(2), 19-34.
Mayer, Nicole D, & Tormala, Zakary L. (2010). “Think” versus “feel” framing effects in persuasion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(4), 443-454.
Maynard, M. L., & Taylor, C. R. (1999). Girlish images across cultures: Analyzing Japanese versus US Seventeen magazine ads. Journal of Advertising, 28(1), 39-48.
McCracken, G. (1987). Advertising: meaning or information? Advances in consumer research, 14(1), 121-124.
McCracken, G. (1989). Who is the celebrity endorser? Cultural foundations of the endorsement process. Journal of Consumer Research, 16(3), 310-321.
McGuire, W. (1985), Handbook of Social Psychology, New York, NY: Random House.
McLeod, J.M., & Chaffee, S.H. (1973). Interpersonal approaches to communication research. American Behavioral Scientist, 16(4), 469-499.
Merton, R.K. (1957). Social theory and structure. Glencoe: Illinois.
Miceli, M., & Castelfranchi, C. (2007). The envious mind. Cognition and emotion, 21(3), 449-479.
Micu, C.C., Coulter, R.A., & Price, L.L. (2009). How product trial alters the effects of model attractiveness. Journal of Advertising, 38(2), 69-82.
Miller, A. G. (1970). Role of physical attractiveness in impression formation. Psychonomic Science; Psychonomic Science, 19(4), 241-243.
Mills, J. S., Polivy, J., Herman, C. P., & Tiggemann, M. (2002). Effects of exposure to thin media images: Evidence of self-enhancement among restrained eaters. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 1687-1699.
Mishkind, M. E., Rodin, J., Silberstein, L. R., & Striegel-Moore, R. H. (1986). The Embodiment of Masculinity. The American Behavioral, 29(5), 545-562.
Mishra, P. (2009). Green-eyed Monsters in the Workplace: Antecedents and Consequences of Envy. Paper presented at the Academy of Management Proceedings.
Moschis, G.P. (1976). Social comparison and informal group influence. Journal of Marketing Research, 13(1), 237-244.
Mowen, J.C., & Brown, S.W. (1981). On explaining and predicting the effectiveness of celebrity endorsers. Advances in Consumer Research, 8(1), 437-441.
Muehling, Darrel D, & Sprott, David E. (2004). The power of reflection: an empirical examination of nostalgia advertising effects. Journal of Advertising, 33(3), 25-35.
Mussweiler, T. (2003). Comparison processes in social judgment: mechanisms and consequences. Psychological Review, 110(3), 472-489.
Ohanian, R. (1990). Construction and validation of a scale to measure celebrity endorsers' perceived expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. Journal of Advertising, 19(3), 39-52.
Ohanian, R. (1991). The impact of celebrity spokespersons' perceived image on consumers' intention to purchase. Journal of Advertising Research, 13(1), 46-54.
Oliver, R.L. (1980). A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decisions. Journal of Marketing Research, 17(4), 460-469.
Parks, C.D., Rumble, A.C., & Posey, D.C. (2002). The effects of envy on reciprocation in a social dilemma. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(4), 509-520.
Parrott, W Gerrod, & Smith, Richard H. (1993). Distinguishing the experiences of envy and jealousy. Journal of personality and social psychology, 64(6), 906-920.
Pascal, Vincent J, Sprott, David E, & Muehling, Darrel D. (2002). The influence of evoked nostalgia on consumers' responses to advertising: an exploratory study. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 24(1), 39-47.
Patzer, G. L. (1985). The physical attractiveness phenomena. New York: Plenum Press.
Patzer, G.L. (1983). Source credibility as a function of communicator physical attractiveness. Journal of Business Research, 11(2), 229-241.
Petroshius, S.M., & Crocker, K.E. (1989). An empirical analysis of spokesperson characteristics on advertisement and product evaluations. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 17(3), 217-225.
Pettigrew, T.F. (1967). Social evaluation theory: convergences and applications. Paper presented at the Nebraska symposium on motivation.
Piskorz, J., & Piskorz, Z. (2009). Situational determinants of envy and schadenfreude. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 30(3), 137-144.
Polman, E., & Ruttan, R.L. (2012). Effects of anger, guilt, and envy on moral hypocrisy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(1), 129-139.
Pomaki, G., Karoly, P., & Maes, S. (2009). Linking goal progress to subjective well-being at work: The moderating role of goal-related self-efficacy and attainability. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14(2), 206-218.
Poran, Maya A. (2002). Denying diversity: Perceptions of beauty and social comparison processes among Latina, Black, and White women. Sex Roles, 47(1-2), 65-81.
Poynor, C., Dahl, D., & Gorn, G. (2010). Monster or Motivator? Understanding and Taming Consumer Envy. Advances in Consumer Research, 37(1), 196-197.
Putrevu, Sanjay. (2008). Consumer responses toward sexual and nonsexual appeals: The influence of involvement, need for cognition (NFC), and gender. Journal of Advertising, 37(2), 57-70.
Quintanilla, L., & de López, K. J. (2013). The niche of envy: Conceptualization, coping strategies, and the ontogenesis of envy in cultural psychology. Culture & Psychology, 19(1), 76-94.
Richins, M.L. (1991). Social comparison and the idealized images of advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(1), 71-83.
Richins, Marsha L. (1995). Social comparison, advertising, and consumer discontent. American Behavioral Scientist, 38(4), 593-607.
Rodin, J., Silberstein, L., & Striegel-Moore, R. (1985). Women and weight: A normative discontent. Paper presented at the Nebraska Symposium on Motivation; Nebraska Symposium on Motivation.
Roseman, I.J., Wiest, C., & Swartz, T.S. (1994). Phenomenology, behaviors, and goals differentiate discrete emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 206-221.
Ryan, Thomas A. (1970). Intentional behavior: An approach to human motivation. NY: Ronald Press.
Saad, G. (2007). The evolutionary bases of consumption. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Salovey, P., & Rodin, J. (1984). Some antecedents and consequences of social-comparison jealousy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47(4), 780-792.
Salovey, P., & Rodin, J. (1986). The differentiation of social-comparison jealousy and romantic jealousy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(6), 1100-1112.
Sarwer, D. B., Magee, L., & Clark, V. (2003). Physical appearance and cosmetic medical treatments: physiological and socio‐cultural influences. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 2(1), 29-39.
Schaubroeck, J., & Lam, S.S.K. (2004). Comparing lots before and after: Promotion rejectees' invidious reactions to promotees. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 94(1), 33-47.
Scheier, Michael F, Carver, Charles S, & Bridges, Michael W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): a reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(6), 1063-1078.
Schweitzer, M. E., Ordonez, L., & Douma, B. (2004). Goal Setting as a Motivator of Unethical Behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 47(3), 422-432.
Schwinghammer, S. A., Stapel, D. A., & Blanton, H. (2006). Different selves have different effects: Self-activation and defensive social comparison. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(1), 27-39.
Silver, M., & Sabini, J. (1978). The perception of envy. Social Psychology, 41(2), 105-117.
Smeesters, D., Yzerbyt, V.Y., Corneille, O., & Warlop, L. (2009). When do primes prime? The moderating role of the self-concept in individuals’ susceptibility to priming effects on social behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(1), 211-216.
Smith, R. E., & Hunt, S. D. (1978). Attributional processes and effects in promotional situations. Journal of Consumer Research, 5(3), 149-158.
Smith, R. H. (2008). Envy: Theory and research. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Smith, R.H. (1991). Envy and the sense of injustice. 77-99.
Smith, R.H., & Kim, S.H. (2007). Comprehending envy. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 46-64.
Smith, R.H., Parrott, W.G., Ozer, D., & Moniz, A. (1994). Subjective injustice and inferiority as predictors of hostile and depressive feelings in envy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(6), 705-711.
Solomon, M.R., Ashmore, R.D., & Longo, L.C. (1992). The beauty match-up hypothesis: Congruence between types of beauty and product images in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 21(4), 23-34.
Stapel, D.A., & Koomen, W. (2001). I, We, and the Effects of Others on Me: How Self-Construal Level Moderates Social Comparison Effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(5), 766-781.
Steil, J.M., & Hay, J.L. (1997). Social comparison in the workplace: A study of 60 dual-career couples. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(4), 427-438.
Stice, E., Schupak-Neuberg, E., Shaw, H.E., & Stein, R.I. (1994). Relation of media exposure to eating disorder symptomatology: An examination of mediating mechanisms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology; Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103(4), 836-840.
Swallow, S.R., & Kuiper, N.A. (1992). Mild depression and frequency of social comparison behavior. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 11(2), 167-180.
Swann, W.B., Hixon, J.G., Stein-Seroussi, A., & Gilbert, D.T. (1990). The fleeting gleam of praise: Cognitive processes underlying behavioral reactions to self-relevant feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(1), 17-26.
Sweller, John. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257-285.
Taylor, S.E., & Lobel, M. (1989). Social comparison activity under threat: downward evaluation and upward contacts. Psychological Review, 96(4), 569-575.
Taylor, S.E., Wayment, H.A., & Carrillo, M. (1996). Social comparison, self-regulation, and motivation Handbook of Motivation and Cognition (pp. 3-27). New York: Guilford Press.
Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 181-228.
Tesser, A., & Campbell, J. (1980). Self-definition: The impact of the relative performance and similarity of others. Social Psychology Quarterly, 43(3), 341-347.
Tesser, A., & Collins, J.E. (1988). Emotion in social reflection and comparison situations: intuitive, systematic, and exploratory approaches. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(5), 695-709.
Tesser, A., Millar, M., & Moore, J. (1988). Some affective consequences of social comparison and reflection processes: The pain and pleasure of being close. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(1), 49-61.
Thomsen, S. R. (2002). Health and beauty magazine reading and body shape concerns among a group of college women. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 79(4), 988-1007.
Thornton, B., & Moore, S. (1993). Physical attractiveness contrast effect: Implications for self-esteem and evaluations of the social self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19(4), 474-480.
Thornton, D.A., & Arrowood, A.J. (1966). Self-evaluation, self-enhancement, and the locus of social comparison. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1(1), 40-48.
Tiggemann, M., & McGill, B. (2004). The role of social comparison in the effect of magazine advertisements on women's mood and body dissatisfaction. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(1), 23-44.
Till, B.D., & Busler, M. (2000). The match-up hypothesis: physical attractiveness, expertise, and the role of fit on brand attitude, purchase intent and brand beliefs. Journal of Advertising, 29(3), 1-13.
Trampe, D., Stapel, D. A., & Siero, F. W. (2007). On models and vases: Body dissatisfaction and proneness to social comparison effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(1), 106-118.
Trampe, D., Stapel, D. A., & Siero, F. W. (2011). The self-activation effect of advertisements: ads can affect whether and how consumers think about the self. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(6), 1030-1045.
Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2009). Leveling up and down: the experiences of benign and malicious envy. Emotion, 9(3), 419-429.
Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2011a). The envy premium in product evaluation. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(6), 984-998.
Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2011b). Why envy outperforms admiration. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(6), 784-795.
Van Merrienboer, Jeroen JG, & Sweller, John. (2005). Cognitive load theory and complex learning: Recent developments and future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 147-177.
VanderZee, K., Buunk, B., & Sanderman, R. (1996). The Relationship between Social Comparison Processes and Personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 20(5), 551-565.
Vecchio, R.P. (2000). Negative emotion in the workplace: Employee jealousy and envy. International Journal of Stress Management, 7(3), 161-179.
Watson, S., Wells, C. D., & Hudson, E. J. (2011). The Effects of Idealized Advertising Imagery on Social Comparisons, Psychological and Emotional Outcomes, and Consumer Vulnerability: A Conceptual Model. Journal of Promotion Management, 17(4), 407-417.
Wheeler, L. (1991). A brief history of social comparison theory Social Comparison—Contemporary Theory and Research (pp. 3-21). New Jersey Hove and London: Hillsdale.
Wheeler, L., Koestner, R., & Driver, R.E. (1982). Related attributes in the choice of comparison others: It's there, but it isn't all there is. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18(6), 489-500.
White, J. B., Langer, E. J., Yariv, L., & Welch, J.C. (2006). Frequent social comparisons and destructive emotions and behaviors: The dark side of social comparisons. Journal of Adult Development, 13(1), 36-44.
Widgery, R. N., & Ruch, R. S. (1981). Beauty and the Machiavellian. Communication Quarterly, 29(4), 297-301.
Wiles, Michael A, & Danielova, Anna. (2009). The worth of product placement in successful films: an event study analysis. Journal of Marketing, 73(4), 44-63.
Wills, T.A. (1981). Downward Comparison Principles in Social Psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90(2), 245-271.
Wood, J.V. (1989). Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological Bulletin, 106(2), 231-248.
Wood, J.V. (1996). What is social comparison and how should we study it? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(5), 520-537.
Wood, J.V., & Taylor, K.L. (1991). Serving Self-relevant Goals through Social Comparison.
Yoshimura, C. G. (2010). The experience and communication of envy among siblings, siblings-in-law, and spouses. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27(8), 1075-1088.
Zaichkowsky, Judith Lynne. (1994). The personal involvement inventory: Reduction, revision, and application to advertising. Journal of Advertising, 23(4), 59-70.
Zhang, Y., & Huang, S.C. (2010). How Endowed versus Earned Progress Affects Consumer Goal Commitment and Motivation. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(4), 641-654.
Zhao, Jing. (2005). An experimental comparison of celebrity spokespersons' credibility, attractiveness, expertise, and identification on attitudes toward the ads and future interest: Lethbridge, Alta.: University of Lethbridge, Faculty of Management, 2005.
Zizzo, D. (2007). The cognitive and behavioral economics of envy. Available at SSRN 989360, 190-210.
Zizzo, D.J., & Oswald, A.J. (2001). Are People Willing to Pay to Reduce Others' Incomes? Annales d'Economie et de Statistique, 63/64, 39-65.