Abstract

The evolutions of microstructure and texture in 2205 duplex stainless steel (DSS) welds produced by two high energy density (HED) processes, CO2 laser beam welding (LBW) and electron beam welding (EBW) were investigated. A variety of analytical techniques were applied for the study on microstructure and texture of the welds. In which, optical microscopy and electron microscopy were used to evaluate the detailed microstructure. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was put to investigate the crystallographic textures among the base metal, heat affected zone and fusion zone. Particular attention was focused on the determination of microtexture in HED welds by using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique. After that, an effort was put to compare the results by both of X-ray macro-texture and EBSD-microtexture.
The recorded micrographs illustrates that the HED welds are mainly composed of d-ferrite grained structure, which is further decorated with allotriomorphic and Widmanstätten austenite (g) at grain boundaries. With preheating treatment, the volume fraction of austenite in LB weld is gradually increased, and then leading to a completely different morphology. An apparent amount of transformation twins are found in g phase under TEM observations. No matter that they are Widmanstätten austenite in nonpreheated welds or blocky austenite in preheated welds, all of the transformation twins have the same {111} twin boundary. Furthermore, modulated fringes composed of ferrite, secondary austenite and amorphous phase are also found in the nonpreheated LB weld. It is ascribed to the rapid cooling effect occurred in the nonpreheated LB weld. Two chromium nitrides (CrN and Cr2N) are also identified and attributed to their different driving forces.
A remarkable texture gradient is found in the base metal along the thickness direction for both of austenite and ferrite phases in 2205 duplex stainless steel. The texture is governed separately by the {001}//ND-fibre, a-fibre, Goss and rotated cube components. Despite the analogous local texture evolutions revealing in both LB and EB welds, the global solidification textures in the two processes are considerably different. For which, the texture of LB weld is predominantly evolved with the Goss component. However, the texture of EB weld is mainly composed of the pronounced cube {001}<100>, while the Goss {011}<100> and rotated cube {001}<110> are weakened. The microtexture analysis shows that the centre region of the weld is dominated by oriented nucleation mechanism. Whereas, regions near the fusion boundaries are governed by oriented growth mechanism. The texture feature from EBSD does consist well with the XRD measured result. Moreover, the measurement of local texture from EB weld clearly indicates that a high percentage of high angle grain boundaries distributed in the crown. By contrary, a high percentage of low angle grain boundaries distributed in the root. Both of them again reflect the cooling effect of weld on the solidification mechanism. Throughout this study, the key factors to be responsible for the evolution of solidification texture of HED welded DSS are summarized. Those are thermal conductivity of the weld, turbulent flow in the molten pool, parent textures and the orientation relationship between ferrite and austenite.

Abstract

The evolutions of microstructure and texture in 2205 duplex stainless steel (DSS) welds produced by two high energy density (HED) processes, CO2 laser beam welding (LBW) and electron beam welding (EBW) were investigated. A variety of analytical techniques were applied for the study on microstructure and texture of the welds. In which, optical microscopy and electron microscopy were used to evaluate the detailed microstructure. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was put to investigate the crystallographic textures among the base metal, heat affected zone and fusion zone. Particular attention was focused on the determination of microtexture in HED welds by using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique. After that, an effort was put to compare the results by both of X-ray macro-texture and EBSD-microtexture.
The recorded micrographs illustrates that the HED welds are mainly composed of d-ferrite grained structure, which is further decorated with allotriomorphic and Widmanst&auml;tten austenite (g) at grain boundaries. With preheating treatment, the volume fraction of austenite in LB weld is gradually increased, and then leading to a completely different morphology. An apparent amount of transformation twins are found in g phase under TEM observations. No matter that they are Widmanst&auml;tten austenite in nonpreheated welds or blocky austenite in preheated welds, all of the transformation twins have the same {111} twin boundary. Furthermore, modulated fringes composed of ferrite, secondary austenite and amorphous phase are also found in the nonpreheated LB weld. It is ascribed to the rapid cooling effect occurred in the nonpreheated LB weld. Two chromium nitrides (CrN and Cr2N) are also identified and attributed to their different driving forces.
A remarkable texture gradient is found in the base metal along the thickness direction for both of austenite and ferrite phases in 2205 duplex stainless steel. The texture is governed separately by the {001}//ND-fibre, a-fibre, Goss and rotated cube components. Despite the analogous local texture evolutions revealing in both LB and EB welds, the global solidification textures in the two processes are considerably different. For which, the texture of LB weld is predominantly evolved with the Goss component. However, the texture of EB weld is mainly composed of the pronounced cube {001}<100>, while the Goss {011}<100> and rotated cube {001}<110> are weakened. The microtexture analysis shows that the centre region of the weld is dominated by oriented nucleation mechanism. Whereas, regions near the fusion boundaries are governed by oriented growth mechanism. The texture feature from EBSD does consist well with the XRD measured result. Moreover, the measurement of local texture from EB weld clearly indicates that a high percentage of high angle grain boundaries distributed in the crown. By contrary, a high percentage of low angle grain boundaries distributed in the root. Both of them again reflect the cooling effect of weld on the solidification mechanism. Throughout this study, the key factors to be responsible for the evolution of solidification texture of HED welded DSS are summarized. Those are thermal conductivity of the weld, turbulent flow in the molten pool, parent textures and the orientation relationship between ferrite and austenite.

Table of Contents
Page
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………..I
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………..….….III
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………......VII
List of Figures………………………………………………………………………...…VIII
Acknowledgements………………………………………………….……………….…..XV

CHAPTER 1 Introduction………………………………………………………..….....1
1.1 Background…………………………………………………………………………...1
1.2 Motivations and Objectives…………………………………………………………..3

CHAPTER 2 Literatures Review…………………………………………………....…5
2.1 Characteristics of High Energy Density Beam (HED) Welding…………………..….5
2.1.1 Laser Beam Welding (LBW) ………………………………….….…….....….5
2.1.2 Electron Beam Welding (EBW) ………………………………………..…….7
2.1.3 Formation of Keyhole in HED Welding…….………………………..…..…...9
2.2 Characteristics of Fe-Cr-Ni Duplex Stainless steel (DSS).……………………….…..9
2.3 Solidification and Crystallization Phenomena of Fusion Welds………………..…....12
2.3.1 Regions of a Fusion Weld………………………………………………..…..15
2.3.2 Epitaxial Solidification of Fusion Welds………………………………...…..17
2.3.3 Solidification Parameters and Weld Microstructures………………………..19
2.4 Microstructures in HED Welded Fe-Cr-Ni Duplex Stainless Steels………..……......25
2.5 Primary Solidification Modes of Fe-Cr-Ni Alloys….……………………………….28
2.6 Texture of Metals…………………………………………………….……..…....…..31
2.6.1 Macrotexture, Microtexture, and Mesotexture…………………...…….…....33
2.6.2 Methods for Texture Determination……………...…………………………..33
2.6.3 Microtexture Determination of Welding Using EBSD...…………..……..….38
2.6.4 Data Representation of Textures……………………………………………..39
2.7 Development of Textures in Stainless Steels…………………………..………...…...40
2.8 Anisotropy of Crystal Growth during Solidification………..………………..….…...43
2.9 Formation of Grain Boundaries during Welding…………………………..……...….47

CHAPTER 3 Experimental Procedures……………………………………...….….51
3.1 Alloy Design of Base Metal……………………………………………………..…..51
3.2 High Energy Density Beam (HED) Weldings…………………………..………...…51
3.2.1 CO2 Laser Beam Welding (LBW).……………………………………..…....51
3.2.2 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)………………………….………..……...…52
3.3 Metallography…………………………………………………………….….…...…52
3.4 TEM/AEM Observations…………………………………………………….…..….53
3.5 Textures Measurements…………………………..……………………………...…..53
3.5.1 X-ray Diffractometry for Macrotexture Measurements………………..……53
3.5.2 SEM-based Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) for Micro/MesotextureMeasurements………………...…………………..……..54
CHAPTER 4 Results……………………………………………………….…………..62
4.1 Microstructure and Texture Evolution of the DSS Base Metal…………..….……....62
4.1.1 Microstructure of the Base Metals……………………….……………...…..62
4.1.2 Textures Evolution of the Solution-treated 2205 DSS Base Metals
Measured by Conventional X-ray Diffraction…………………………..….62
4.1.3 Textures Evolution of the Solution-treated 2205 DSS Base Metals Measured by EBSD………………………………….…………..….……….…..……...73
4.2 Microstructure Changes of HED Welded DSS………………………………..….......79
4.2.1 Microstructure Changes of CO2 Laser Beam (LB) Welded 2205 DSS.…….79
4.2.2 Identification of Chrome Nitrides…………………………………….…....89
4.2.3 Microstructure Changes of Electron Beam (EB) Welded 2205 DSS…..…..99
4.3 Solidification Textures of CO2 LB Welded DSS…………………………..….….....99
4.3.1 Local Textures Evolution of CO2 LB Welded DSS….…………...…..…...104
4.3.2 Grain Boundary Mesorientation in CO2 LB Welded DSS…………….......110
4.4 Solidification Textures of EB Welded 2205 DSS…….…………………………….123
4.4.1 Macrotexture Evolution of EB Welded 2205 DSS………….…………......123
4.4.2 Local Textures Evolution of EB Welded 2205 DSS……………………….125
4.4.3 Grain Boundary Misorientation in EB Welded DSS……………….……...130

CHAPTER 5 Discussion……………………………………………………….....….132
5.1 Analysis of Parent Texture and Comparison of XRD and EBSD Measured Data
in the Solution-treated 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel………………………………..132
5.1.1 Evolution of Parent Textures in 2205 DSS Base Metal……...……….…...132
5.1.2 Comparison of Texture Data Measured by XRD and EBSD…...…….…...135
5.2 Transformation of Ferrite and Austenite in HED Welded DSS……...………...…..139
5.3 Formation of Twinnng Austenite in 2205 DSS LB Welds……..…………...….….143
5.4 Precipitation of Chromium Nitrides in CO2 LB Welded 2205 DSS…………..…..145
5.5 Texture Competition in Solidification of Cubic Metal……….………………..….151
5.6 Comparisons of Microtexture in the Welds……………………………..……..….153
5.6.1 Microtexture between Crown and Root of the Weld………………...……153
5.6.2 Microtexture between Weld Centre and Fusion Boundary...………..….…154
5.7 Factors Affecting the Texture Evolution of HED Welded DSS…………….….….160

CHAPTER 6 Conclusions……………………………………………………….….167
References………………………………………………………………….……..….169
Appendices………………………………………………………………………….…181
A.1 On the Terminology of Ferrite in Stainless Steel………………………….….….181
A.2 Rodrigues-Frank (R-F) Space for Texture Representations………………….….182
References A……………………………………….……………………………….….185
Vita…………………………………………………………………………………...XVII

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