飲用水中微生物生長需要營養源，如有機碳、氮及磷等。其中，生物可利用有機碳(assimilable organic carbon, AOC)為控制飲用水配水系統中微生物生長之主要營養源。淨水處理系統及處理場出流水之AOC備受矚目，因水中AOC造成微生物污染，導致配水管網及淨水處理系統中異營菌生長，使水質惡化。

活性碳是一種吸附劑，是經由木材、瀝青煤或其他碳材料燃燒活化而成，具有相當大比表面積，常用於水及廢水處理流程。在水處理場常使用粒狀活性碳，將此單元放於砂濾之後。生物活性碳濾床亦為水處理場常應用技術之ㄧ，通常生物活性碳濾床所提供之巨大表面積，可吸附味道、臭味及色素化合物與過量的氯、毒性物質、三鹵甲烷前驅物、殺蟲劑及導致微生物後生長之物質。而在生物過濾程序後，必須要有一個最終消毒程序以確保配水管網微生物穩定。因為生物活性碳濾床無法去除不分解之物質，所以在生物活性碳濾床之前應該進行臭氧氧化處理單元。臭氧為一氧化劑，透過氧化過程將難分解或大分子有機物分解成較小有機物，即可增加生物活性碳濾床對於生物可利用有機碳之去除率。

澄清湖淨水場是高屏地區最大的淨水處理場，淨水場所處理的水源為高屏溪流域。近年來，因為管理及技術上所需，必須進行高級淨水之處理程序，以供高屏地區使用。經過澄清湖淨水場之高級淨水程序處理後，出流水之水質情況皆符合環保署及自來水公司之飲用水標準。然而，在進入配水管網後常因微生物生長、管線腐蝕及消毒副產物等因素影響下，使得水質再次受到汙染，所以針對配水管網進行監測及有效管理是不可或缺的重要工作。加氯消毒是最常使用的方法之ㄧ，而且當水中餘氯跟有機物質反應後會生成消毒副產物。而消毒副產物中，以總三鹵甲烷之所佔比例最高。根據世界衛生組織之說明，總三鹵甲烷具有致癌風險，而現今最常使用的致癌風險暴露途徑有三個方向，分別為食入性、吸入性及皮膚接觸等三方向之總和。

本研究分為四個研究主題，第一個主題為評估澄清湖淨水場對水質淨化之處理效能；第二個主題為研究生物活性碳系統對於微量污染物之去除效能及系統中之微生物相之變化，然後比較出活性碳及無煙煤兩種生物濾床材質之水質淨化效能，以提供水場之最佳生物濾床系統之設計；第三個主題為評估乾淨水進入配水管網後，在微生物、有機質、管線腐蝕及消毒副產物等之影響下，水質變化之情況，並依以監測結果評估後續之管理策略；最後一個研究主題為應用風險評估模式，以了解總三鹵甲烷透過三種暴露途徑，導致男性跟女性之致癌風險機率，並做為未來管理及定訂因應措施之依據。

由第一部分之研究得知水中AOC及水質相關參數具相關性，經處理後清水端之AOC濃度低於澄清湖淨水場訂定之標準(50 µg acetate-C/L)，本研究之主要結論如下：
(1) 清水端之出流水AOC濃度低於水場之規定標準，表示澄清湖高級淨水場之處理單元對於AOC具有良好之去除率。
(2) 經臭氧處理單元及加氯後AOC之濃度增加，原因為臭氧氧化部分有機物轉換成生物易於利用的營養物質。
(3) AOC之移除與水質相關參數[大腸桿菌(coliform)、總菌落數(TPC)、總溶解性固體物(TDS)及顆粒數(particle counts)]具相關性。
(4) 硫代硫酸鈉之添加可提高AOC分析之準確度。
(5) AOC之最主要處理單元為生物活性碳濾床(biological activated carbon, BAC)，所以BAC之設計、維護及操作為首要之工作。

由第二部分之研究結果得知粒狀活性碳(granular activated carbon, GAC)管柱試驗與現場BAC之AOC 去除率相近，且兩者去除率高於無煙煤管柱；掃描式電子顯微鏡(scanning electron microscope, SEM)觀察兩管柱之微生物生長情況，其結果得知以5公分深之濾材微生物生長情況最佳。本研究之主要結論：
(1) 生物活性碳濾床可移除一些微量污染物(有機質、副產物及金屬等)。
(2) BAC單元之出流水之AOC 濃度低於水場之規定標準，表示BAC之處理對於AOC 具有良好之去除率。
(3) 在氧化處理程序後，水中AOC會有增加趨勢，本研究亦有同樣之結果。所以在氧化單元後加入BAC系統是可有效降低AOC濃度。
(4) 在管柱試驗中以粒狀活性碳對於AOC之去除效率高於無煙煤。
(5) 兩管柱濾材表面因管柱進流影響使得微生物無法穩定生長及附著情況不佳；深度40公分處因氧氣不易到達，易造成厭氧，導致微生物生長不良；微生物生長狀況以5公分深處之濾材最佳，研判為微生物生長受到保護及又有較高溶氧，此一環境較適微生物生長。

第三部分研究為評估淨水場之出流水進入配水管網後之水質變化。主要之研究結果如下:
(1) 管網中之餘氯量可有效抑制微生物生長及其濃度符合飲用水標準(0.2~2.0 ppm)。
(2) AOC、UV-254(在波長254 nm之有機物)及總有機碳(total organic carbon, TOC)在不同行政區具正相關性，且AOC/TOC介於0.1~9%之間。
(3) AOC、 pH、氧化還原電位(oxidation/reduction potential, ORP)、TOC、UV-254及餘氯之濃度變化會影響配水管網中微生之生長。
(4) 水中溶氧會影響總三鹵甲烷(trihalomethanes, THMs)及鹵乙酸(haloacetic acids, HAAs)之生成，且溶氧(dissolved oxygen, DO)、pH及ORP具正相關性。
(5) 經Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)及Ryznar Stability Index (RSI)評估得之位於左營及鼓山之行政區之管材因碳酸鈣濃度未達飽和LSI為負數，顯示有管材腐蝕之疑慮，應可由此來評估更換管材之順序。
(6) 管線中總鐵之監測，更能印證管材之腐蝕情況，結果得之許多行政區總鐵含量超過法規標準(0.3 mg/L)。
(7) 由以上各水質參數顯示出多處之澄清湖配水管網呈現高度氧化及腐蝕狀態。

第四項研究為評估高雄市配水管網中THMs對人體造成之風險，研究結果得知吸入性暴露為最主要之致癌風險途徑，食入性致癌風險以CHBrCl2及CHBr2Cl兩物種最高，所有行政區之食入性風險以旗津區最高及三民區最小。在皮膚接觸風險以三氯甲烷最高，在淋浴及沐浴下以旗津區致癌風險最高，以苓雅區最小，且男性之皮膚接觸之致癌風險高於女性。在吸入性致癌風險以旗津區之風險值最高，苓雅區風險值最低，其吸入性最高致癌物種為三氯甲烷。非致癌性之危害風險評估也是以旗津區最高，以三民區最低，主要之攝入途徑為食入跟皮膚接觸吸收。要降低消毒副產物之濃度，必須去除消毒副產物之前驅物質及變更消毒方式。混凝、活性碳過濾、薄膜及臭氧搭配生物濾床皆是去除消毒副產物前趨質之有效方法，在水源之有機質控制亦是減少消毒副產物前質之可行方式。消毒副產物中以總三鹵甲烷之影響最大，而其中更以三氯甲烷及一溴二氯甲烷之所佔比例最大，所以進行消毒副產物之人體健康風險評估，應以總三鹵甲烷之評列為首要評估之對象。為了要減少總三鹵甲烷之致癌及危害風險，可經由控制消毒副產物之前質、微生物生長、更換老舊管線等方向進行。

Cheng-Ching Lake water treatment plant (CCLWTP), the largest water treatment plant in southern Taiwan serving the Kaoping region, uses the Kaoping River water as the source water. The plant has encountered both technical and managerial challenges to implement advanced water treatment system since 2004 in order to provide high quality drinking water to the residents living in the Kaoping metropolitan area and to meet future stringent drinking water standards.

Granular activated carbon (GAC), derived from wood, bituminous coal, lignite, or other carbon-containing materials, and is the most widely utilized adsorbent for treating water and wastewater. It is usually used after the sand filtration process in water or wastewater treatment plant; the exhausted GAC is re-activated by a combustion process. Moreover, biological activated carbon (BAC) filtration (biofiltration) has become one of the advanced treatment techniques applied in the water treatment plant. In general, BAC offers a large internal surface area for the adsorption of taste, odor, and color compounds, excess chlorine, toxic and mutagenic substances (e.g., bromide, chlorinated organic compounds, including trihalomethanes), trihalomethane precursors, pesticides, phenolic compounds, dyes, toxic metals, and substances that cause biological after growth. After the biofiltration process, a final disinfection is necessary to ensure the microbial quality of the treated water. Because biofiltration is usually not capable of removing biorefractory substances, pre-oxidation with ozone is usually applied for oxidizing the most biorefractory organic matters and also improving their biodegradability before the water is treated in the BAC process. Hence, using ozone pre-oxidation will greatly enhances the effectiveness of the subsequent BAC process.

The CCLWTP effluent meets the current drinking water quality established by Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration (TEPA). However, the microbial regrowth due to the residual minute quantity of organic carbons causes pipe corrosion, and the formation of disinfectant by-products (DBPs) in the distribution system leading to potential contaminations of the clean water after it enters into the distribution system. Thus, monitoring the water quality in water distribution systems necessity to develop appropriate strategies for managing both the treatment plant and following distribution systems.

Chlorine is often used in municipal water treatment plant for disinfecting drinking water; it can react with naturally occurring organic matter to form trihalomethanes (THMs), e.g. chloroform, bromodichloromethane, chlorodibromomethane and bromoform that causes long-term health hazards to consumers through oral ingestion, dermal absorption and inhalation. The lifetime cancer risk and the hazard index of THMs through oral ingestion, dermal absorption, and inhalation exposure from tap water in 9 districts in Kaohsiung City are estimated.

In the first part of this study, water samples were periodically collected from each treatment process of Cheng-Ching Lake Water Treatment Plant (CCLWTP) to assess the AOC (assimilable organic carbon) removal. In the second part of this study, the role of BAC filtration used in advanced water treatment plant and its capability to remove pollutants (AOC, bromide, bromate, and iron) were evaluated. Additionally, the efficiency of biofiltration process using GAC and anthracite as the fillers was also assessed with a bench-scale GAC adsorption column. In third part of the study, the distribution system of CCLWTP was selected for conducting the case study for understanding the fate and transport of water quality indicators in the distribution system. The last part of the study concentrated on undertaking multipathway exposure assessment based on the concentrations of various THMs found in the water samples collected at various locations of Kaohsiung City water supply system.

The AOC removal efficiency of the advanced water treatment processes of the CCL was assessed using data collected in the field during the first phase of this study. However, the effect of two different filling materials on the efficiency of biofiltration process was evaluated using a laboratory bench-scale column study. Results of both laboratory study and field investigation show that a significant AOC removal efficiency was achieved by the BAC system implemented in CCLWTP. Conclusions of this study are summarized as follows:
1. Significant AOC removal efficiency was achieved in CCLWTP and the AOC concentrations in the effluent could meet the current established standards.
2. The increased AOC concentrations after the treatment of preozonation and chlorination may be caused by the oxidation of organic matters to more biodegradable and assimilable products.
3. The removal of AOC is correlated with the decrease in concentrations of other drinking water indicators, e.g., coliform, TPC, TDS, and particle counts).
4. The addition of sodium thiosulfate in water samples could enhance the performance of the AOC analysis (the accuracy and reliability).
5. The BAC filtration has been demonstrated to play an important role in the removal of the trace AOC. Thus, the application of BAC for AOC removal is feasible and should be included as a required treatment unit in the advanced WTP.

The field study completed in the second part assessed the removal efficiencies of AOC and other water quality indicators in CCLWTP, while the effects of using two different filling materials on the efficiency of biofiltration process and microorganisms growing were evaluated using a laboratory bench-scale column study. Conclusions of this study include the following:
1. The BAC filtration system is capable of removing trace pollutants including organics and metals.
2. Significant overall treatment efficiency can be achieved in the CCLWTP, and concentrations of the water quality indicators in the effluent will meet the drinking water standards established by TEPA.
3. The increased AOC concentrations after ozonation and chlorination processes may be caused by the oxidation of organic matters into more biodegradable and assimilable organic products.
4. GAC is a more appropriate filling material than anthracite in the biofiltration system for the removal of AOC.
5. More microorganisms were observed in GAC column than in BAF column. This may be due to the effect that GAC has more specific surface area than anthracite. Additionally, more microbial growth was observed at depth of 5 cm than 0 and 40 cm in both columns indicating that 5 cm below the column surface is rich in both dissolved oxygen and biodegradable that causes higher microbial populations.
6. The BAC filtration plays an important role in the removal of the trace AOC; it should be included as a required treatment unit in future advanced WTP. Additionally, the BAF filtration column filled with anthracite is not as effective as the GAC-filled column in removing AOC. Thus, GAC should be used for the proposed BAF filtration unit.
7. The oxidation process using ozone will increase the amount of carbonyl group organics in the oxidized water leading to poor biological stability. Therefore, the oxidation should be combined with a subsequent GAC or biological process to minimize the AOC formation potential.

The third study, Using the oxidation/reduction potential (ORP) along with other water quality parameters to indicate the water quality in the CCLWTP distribution systems was assessed and focused. Behavior of water quality parameters by monitor and investigate was made a replacement of corrosive pipe line. The results reveal that the treated water leaving CCLWTP (clear water) meets the drinking water standards in Taiwan. However, the water is re-contaminated by a number of factors including the corrosion of old pipes while it is flowing in the distribution system. Major conclusions of this study are summarized in the following sections:
1. The free residual chlorine concentration in CCLWTP distribution system is adequate to meet the drinking water standards established by TEPA.
2. The residual AOC concentration is well correlated with the TOC concentration in the samples collected at various sites in different administrative areas.
3. Ratios of AOC/TOC in six administrative areas were higher than 9%, indicating that the biofilms were fall and increased organic matter of tap water distribution systems.
4. The average AOC concentrations were increased with followed variations of UV-254 value.
5. A number of factors (AOC, pH, redox potential, TOC, UV-254, and chlorine residual) control the growth of microorganisms on pipe surfaces.
6. DO have a negative relationship between THMs and HAAs concentrations. Because that oxygen have higher electronegative than chlorine and bromine, and apt utilization of organic carbon.
7. Results were shown of pH, DO and ORP had a positive relationship (Need to be more specific about the correlationship.
8. Major chemical reactions in the distribution system involve both electrons and protons transfers; they are pH- and Eh (ORP)-dependent. Therefore, chemical reactions in pipe net often can be characterized by pH and Eh together with the activity of dissolved chemical species.
9. The results reveal that the non-scaling water in LSI of distribution systems of CCL close to saturation (LSI = 0) (Cannot be understood). As show the other results, located K and M1 areas in LSI　were -0.002 and -0.012, respectively. The appearance of the pipe in K and M1 areas were corrosion and undersaturated with CaCO3 (needs to be re-written).
10. The RSI value was between 7.0 and 7.5 showing potential corrosion and prioritizes replacement of the pipe.
11. The DO value has a correlation with the reverse in Fe and Fe3+ concentrations.
12. High oxidation conditions and elevated Fe3+ concentrations of exist inside the corrosion scales of the corroded water distribution pipes.
13. The Fe concentrations in the samples collected in various administrative areas exceed the TEPA drinking water standards.
14. The appearance of CCL distribution system of shows severe corrosive and oxidized conditions.

The last part of this study concentrated on evaluating the association between trihalomethanes (THMs) exposure through three different pathways and long-term health risks. The results show that the consumer has a higher risk of cancer through Inhalation route. This is different from the results reported by other research. Because most residents living in Taiwan are accustomed to drinking boiled water, the lifetime cancer risks through oral ingestion of water-borne CHBrCl2, and CHBr2Cl in tap water in all 9 districts were higher than 10-6. By oral ingestion the lifetime cancer risk for total THMs was highest in the 7th district, while the lowest lifetime cancer risk for total THMs was in the 4th district.

Chloroform poses a higher cancer risk to Kaohsiung City residents through dermal exposure than the other three THMs. This study showed that residents in 7th district had the highest cancer risk through inhalation of chloroform among the 9 districts, and the residents in 6th district had the least cancer risk. Residents in 7th district has the highest risk of cancer due to exposure of THMs during showering and bathing as compared with residents in 4th district Males have a higher cancer risk than females through dermal absorption when exposed to THMs.

The results of noncarcinogenic risk assessment for THMs indicate that if the main pathways are through oral ingestion and dermal absorption, 7th district has the highest hazard index of the four chemicals, while 4th district has the lowest hazard index.

According to the above results, the quality of drinking water in Kaohsiung City is in general in accordance with the guidelines for drinking water quality as recommended by the World Health Organization. A better drinking water quality can be achieved by reducing the quantity of disinfection by-products (DBPs) through the removal of DBP precursors using modified treatment practices. Coagulation, granular activated carbon, membranes and ozone-biofiltration can all remove natural organic matter. Additionally, source water protection and control are effective non-treatment alternatives to control water-borne precursors. Optimized applications of disinfectants as primary and secondary disinfectants can further be implemented to control DBPs.

Although research efforts continue to develop new treatment methods that will reduce the levels of DBPs during disinfection, it is generally accepted that risks to health caused by water-borne DBPs in drinking water are relative small in comparison with risks associated with water-borne diseases due to inadequate disinfection. Thus, it is important that the disinfection process should not be compromised in attempting to control water borne DBPs.

The predominant DBPs group has been shown to be THMs, with chloroform and BDCM as the most dominant THMs. Although THMs are only one subgroup of the many DBPs formed during chlorination, they are useful as indicators of the overall DBP formation. It is concluded that, given the current state of knowledge, a risk assessment based on THMs would provide the greatest level of confidence regarding the ability of a drinking water guideline to protect against risks of cancer and other long-term health hazards.

In conclusion, in order to reduce the cancer risk and hazard as indexed by THM concentrations in the drinking water, some methods could be used including controlling to reduce THMs precursors and microbial contaminants in raw water, and aged pipeline, optimizing all treatment processes to ensure that concentrations of disinfectant are adequate, using alternative disinfectants and reducing water age in distribution system. The potential human risks associated with drinking water disinfection are largely unknown, even though some information is available from toxicological and epidemiological studies. More research is needed to determine the risks associated with DBPs. The next progress will facilitate a more realistic assessment of risk due to drinking water contaminants without increasing the levels of uncertainty in risk estimates.

謝誌
摘要………………………………………………………………………….…...…..X
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………..XIV
Table and Contents……………………………………………...………….……..I
List of Tables……………………………………………...…………….….……..VI
List of Figures……………………………………………...……………….…..VIII

Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study…………………………………………………….…..1-2
1.2 Objectives………………………………………………………………………..1-3

Chapter 2. Literature Review
2.1 AOC described......................................................................................................2-2
2.1.1 The importance of determining AOC………………………………...……..2-2
2.1.2 AOC versus TOC or DOC determination in water………………………….2-2
2.1.3 The measurement of bom as AOC concentration……………………….…..2-3
2.1.4 The measurement of bom as BDOC concentration………………….………2-3
2.1.5 Relationships between AOC, BDOC, and other water quality parameters….2-4
2.2 Bacterial regrowth is a potential problem of distribution systems………..……..2-5
2.3 BAC described……………………………………………….……………….....2-7
2.4 Behavior of trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids in a drinking
water distribution system......................................................................................2-9
2.5 The influence of THMs to human healthy..........................................................2-12
2.5.1 Chloroform……………………………………………………………..…2-13
2.5.2 Bromodichloromethane (BDCM)………………………..………………..2-15
2.5.3 Dibromochloromethane (DBCM)…………………………………..……..2-18
2.5.4 Bromoform…………………………………………………………….…..2-19
Reference…………………………………………………………………………..2-21

Chapter 3. Effectiveness of AOC Removal by Advanced Water Treatment Systems: a Case Study
Abstract.......................................................................................................................3-2
3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………….....……..3-2
3.2 Material and methods………………………………………………..…………..3-4
3.2.1 Sample collection and transportation……………………………...…………..3-4
3.2.2 AOC measurement…………………………………………………………..3-5
3.2.3 The effect of sodium thiosulfate on AOC measurement……………...……..3-5
3.3 Results and discussions.........................................................................................3-6
3.3.1 The AOC concentrations in the effluent of various treatment processes........3-6
3.3.2 Correlations between AOC and other drinking water quality indicators........3-7
3.3.3 The effect of sodium thiosulfate on AOC measurement.................................3-8
3.4 Conclusions...........................................................................................................3-8
References.................................................................................................................3-10

Chapter 4. Application of Biofiltration System on AOC Removal:
Column and Field Studies
Abstract.......................................................................................................................4-2
4.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................4-3
4.2 Materials and methods
4.2.1 Field study.......................................................................................................4-5
4.2.2 Column study………………………..………………………………………4-6
4.2.3 SEM observation………………………………………………………….....4-6
4.3 Results and discussion
4.3.1 Removal efficiencies of AOC, bromide, bromate, and iron from BAC unit of CCLWTP………………………………………………………………………...…..4-7
4.3.2 Removal efficiencies of AOC from each treatment process of CCLWTP…..4-8
4.3.3 AOC removal efficiency in column study………………………………..….4-9
4.3.4 Microbial growth at different depths of GAC and BAF columns……….…4-10
4.3.5 Water quality of source water and produce drinking water from CCLWTP…………………………………………………………………………...4-11
4.4 Conclusions………………………………………………………………….…4-12
Reference…………………………………………………………………..………4-13

Chapter 5. Fate and transport of AOC and DBPs in drinking water distribution systems
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………...…5-2
5.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………...5-3
5.2 Materials and methods
5.2.1 Sampling strategy……………………………………………………………5-7
5.2.2 Water quality analysis…………………………………………………….....5-8
5.3 Results and discussions
5.3.1 Microbiological quality and free residual chlorine in drinking water……….5-9
5.3.2 Correlations between AOC, TOC, and UV-254 in 13 administration areas……………………………………………………………………..…5-10
5.3.3 Effects of DO on THMs and HAAs concentrations in distribution systems……………………………………………………….……….……5-11
5.3.4 Variations of pH, ORP, and DO in various administration areas………..…5-12
5.3.5 Comparison of the LSI and RSI with various administration areas…….….5-13
5.3.6 Effect of DO, Fe, and Fe3+ on pipe corrosion in distribution systems……………………………………………………………………..5-14
5.4 Conclusions……………………...…………………………………….……….5-15
References …………………………...………………………………………....….5-17

Chapter 6. Risk assessment of trihalomethances in drinking water distribution systems: a case study
Abstract……………………………………….…………………………………….6-2
6.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..6-2
6.2 Materials and methods…………………………………………………………..6-4
6.3 Results and discussion…………………………………………………………..6-7
6.3.1 THMs concentrations in chlorinated water of distribution systems in Kaohsiung City…………………………………………………….………..6-7
6.3.2 Lifetime cancer risk multi-pathway evaluations for THMs of Kaohsiung City
6.3.2.1 Oral route of cancer risk………………………………………….……….6-8
6.3.2.2 Dermal absorption exposure of cancer risk………………………….……6-9
6.3.2.3 Inhalation exposure of cancer risk……………………………………….6-11
6.3.3 Noncarcinogenic risk multi-pathway evaluations for THMs of Kaohsiung City………………………………………………………………………....6-12
6.3.4 Total cancer risk and hazard index from multipathways for Kaohsiung City residents……………………………………………………………………6-13
6.3.5. Uncertainty analysis6……………………………………………………...6-14
6.4. Conclusions........................................................................................................6-16
References.................................................................................................................6-19
























List of Tables
Page

Chapter 3
Table 3.1. AOC concentrations in the effluent of various treatment processes……3-12
Table 3.2. Results of AOC and other drinking water quality indicators in the effluent of each treatment process………………………..…………………..…3-13
Chapter 4
Table 1. Removal efficiencies of AOC, bromide, bromate and Fe from BAC filtration system of CCLWTP….…………………………………………………..4-16
Table 2. AOC concentrations in the effluent from each treatment process of CCLWTP……….………………………………………………………...4-17
Table 3. Analytical results of source water and clear water at the CCLWTP……...4-18
Chapter 5
Table 1. Interpretation of the Langelier Saturation Index……………………….…5-19
Table 2. Interpretation of the Ryznar Stability Index……………………………...5-19
Table 3. Free Residual Chlorine, chloride, coliform, TBC, AOC, TOC, and AOC/TOC values in distribution systems in various administration areas……………………………………………………………………...5-20
Table 4. The averaged of LSI and RSI values on site water quality monitoring results……………………………………………………….……………5-21
Chapter 6
Table 1. Parameters of oral route…………………………………………..………6-22
Table 2. Parameters of dermal absorption………………………………………….6-22
Table 3. Parameters of inhalation exposure……………………………….……….6-23
Table 4. Summary of THMs levels in tap water of the 9 districts in Kaohsiung City…….…………………………………………………………………6-24
Table 5. Potency factor (PF)/slope factor and RfD for THMs (USEPA, 1999)…....6-24
Table 6. Hazard index of THMs through oral route in tap water of 9 districts in Kaohsiung City…………………………….……………………….…6-25
Table 7. Hazard index male of THMs through dermal contact (during bathing and showering) in tap water of 9 districts in Kaohsiung City…………….….6-26
Table 8. Hazard index female of THMs through dermal contact (during bathing and showering) in tap water of 9 districts in Kaohsiung City……………..…6-27
Table 9. Total cancer risk and hazard index from multipathways for Kaohsiung City residents……………….……………………………………………...….6-27















List of Figures
Page
Chapter 3
Figure. 1. The water treatment processes of the CCLWTP………………..………3-14
Figure. 3. AOC concentrations in the effluent of various treatment processes…….3-14
Figure. 4. The effect of sodium thiosulfate from effluences of sample 1 and sample 3 in preozonation and sample 2 and sample 4 in chlorination on the measurement of AOC…………………………………………………..3-15
Chapter 4
Figure 1. The water treatment processes of the CCLWTP………………………...4-19
Figure 2. Diagram showing the components of the glass columns………………...4-19
Figure 3. AOC removal efficiency of the column test……………………………..4-20
Figure 4. SEM photograph of microorganisms at different depths of the GAC column after 18 months of operation: (a) new granular activated carbon, (b) depth at 0 cm, (c) depth at 5 cm, and (d) depth at 40 cm…………………………………………………………………….…..4-21
Figure 5. SEM photograph of microorganisms at different depths of the GAC column after 18 months of operation: (a) new anthracite, (b) depth at 0 cm, (c) depth at 5 cm, and (d) depth at 40 cm………………………………………………………………………...4-22
Chapter 5
Figure 1. Treatment processes of the CCLWTP…………………………………....5-22
Figure 2. Correlations between AOC, TOC, and UV-254 in 13 administration areas.……………………………………………………………………..5-23
Figure 3. Correlations between THMs, HAAs, and DO in 13 administration areas……………….……………………………………………………..5-24
Figure 4. Analytical results of DO, pH, and ORP in 13 administration areas……..5-24
Figure 5. Behavior of Fe and Fe3+ in various administration areas of Kaohsiung City……………….……………………………………………………....5-25
Figure 6. Diagram showing the sampling site of distribution systems in CCLWTP……………….……………………………………………...…5-25
Chapter 6
Figure 1. Cancer risk of THMs through oral route in tap water in Kaohsiung City…………………………………………………………………...….6-28
Figure 2. Cancer risk for males from THMs dermal contact (during bathing and showering) in tap water of 9 districts in Kaohsiung City…….………….6-28
Figure 3. Cancer risk for females from THMs through dermal contact (during bathing and showering) in tap water of 9 districts in Kaohsiung City……….…. .6-29
Figure 4. Cancer risk from THMs through inhalation route (during bathing) in tap water of 9 districts in Kaohsiung City………………….………………..6-29
Figure 5. Average cancer risk for THMs in different pathways in 9 districts of Kaohsiung City………………………….…………………………….....6-30
Figure 6. Kaohsiung City map and sampling site of water distribution Systems….6-31

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