摘 要
2001年1月的「第二次人民力量革命」（二次乙莎革命）是菲律賓自1946年獨立以來，首次發生總統在任期內被迫下台的政治暴力事件。但是該事件既非「社會革命」，也不是純然的「軍事政變」；相反地，該事件似乎是「軍事政變」和「群眾運動」的綜合體，不過確切的說法應該是「揭舉民主旗幟」的菁英競爭。雖然，該事件或許只是菲律賓境內諸多暴亂事件之一，不過該事件卻招致外界諸多關注，特別是關於「寡頭政治是否再現？」的爭議。
為了解決上述爭議，本文試圖從「寡頭民主的歷史脈絡」、「民主轉型後的寡頭政治型態」、「二次乙莎革命之根源」及「二次乙莎革命之探討」等面向進行探討。首先，本文重新剖析菲律賓的歷史淵源，藉此追溯「寡頭政治」的根源。其次，本文針對「教會干政」、「軍事政變」、「憲政爭議」和「群眾運動」等現象進行論述，藉此彰顯民主轉型後的菲律賓，其民主政體的脆弱性。再者，本文分別從「革命原委」、「革命的爭議與探究」和「革命的迷思與檢討」等面向，深入釐清「二次乙莎革命」的相關爭議。最後，則是對「寡頭政治是否再現？」等相關爭議，進行評析和論證。
誠然，本文發現「寡頭政治」的型態始終都沒有在菲律賓消失；至於，「二次乙莎革命」只是政治菁英們彼此為爭奪權益，所進行的「競爭」遊戲。在此，本文必須重申「二次乙莎革命」之後的菲律賓政局，依然是寡頭政治當道。

Abstract
The event that the Second People’s Power Revolution (EDSA II) forced President Estrada to resign from his presidency in January, 2001, was the first political violence after 1946, the year of the Independence of the Philippines. EDSA II, however, was neither a social revolution nor a military coup, but the combination of the two. The connotation of the event was actually a wrestle among a group of so-called pursuing democracy elite. The event, although, was probably considered as one of the domestic riots in the Philippines, it still became a controversial one which was specifically related to the issue of “the re-emergence of oligarchy”.
The study aimed to find out whether oligarchy re-emerged in the Philippine or not in terms of the context of oligarchy history, the oligarchy style of democracy transition, the source of EDSA II and the argument of EDSA II. The research, firstly, reanalyzed the history of the Philippines in order to trace back oligarchy in the Philippines, and then discussed the phenomena of “church involvement”, “military coup”, “constitutional conflict” and “people movement”, to show the fragile democracy in post-Marcos era. More than that, this study tried to clarify the myth of EDSA II, in terms of “ the cause and effect of the revolution”, “the argument and examination of the revolution” and “the myth and discussion of the revolution”. Finally, the issue of “the re-emergence of oligarchy” was discussed and concluded.
To sum up, the oligarchy did appear in the Philippines. With respect to EDSA II, it was by all means a competition game played by elite. Oligarchy, therefore, was still the main stream in this country.

目次

第一章 導論……………...………………………………………………………………...1
第一節 研究緣起………………………………………………………………………1
第二節 文獻探討………………………………………………………………………5
第三節 研究假設、議題與名詞定義………………………………………………..36
第四節 研究方法……………………………………………………………………..40
第五節 論文章節安排………………………………………………………………..45
第二章 寡頭政治的歷史脈絡…………………………………………………………47
第一節 殖民時期：寡頭政治萌芽…………………………………………………..47
第二節 獨立建國時期：寡頭政治發展…………………………………………......61
第三節 馬可仕獨裁時期：寡頭政治轉變…………………………………………..70
第四節 小結…………………………………………………………………………..76
第三章 民主轉型後的寡頭政治型態………………………..……………………...79
第一節 後馬可仕時期的政局…………………………………….………………..79
第二節 民主轉型後的寡頭政治特質…………………………………….………..93
第三節 民主轉型後的寡頭政治型態…………………………………….………..98
第四節 小結…………………………………….…………………………………110
第四章 二次乙莎革命之根源…………………………...…..…….……..…………..113
第一節 「革命」的原委…………………………………………....….……………113
第二節 「革命」的爭議與探究……………………………………….……………124
第三節 「革命」的迷思與檢討……………………………………………………131
第四節 小結………………………..………………………………………………138
第五章 二次乙莎革命之探討…...…...…..…………………………………….…….141
第一節 「革命」的本質：寡頭菁英競爭……………………………………………141
第二節 「革命」的模式：寡頭政治的惡性循環………………..…………………145
第三節 「革命」的省思：寡頭政治再現…………………………………………152
第四節 小結…………………………………………………………………………165
第六章 結論……………………………………………………………………….…...169
參考書目………………………………………………………………………………….179
附錄…………………………………………………………………………………….…..201

圖表目次

圖目次
圖1-1：精英政治與政治穩定之關係……………………………………………………….27
圖1-2：本論文架構圖……………………………………………………………………….38

表目次
表1-1：參與訪談的國會議員和政黨代表………………………………………………….44
表2-1：美國駐菲律賓總督（1901-1935年）一覽表………………………………………60
表2-2：獨立建國時期（1946－1972年），菲律賓總統一覽表……………………………68
表2-3：菲律賓歷屆（1946-1969年）眾議員選舉、黨派別議席統計……………………69
表2-4：菲律賓歷屆（1946-1969年）參議員選舉、黨派別議席統計……………………69
表2-5：1984年菲律賓國會大選議席統計………………………………………………….72
表2-6：1986年菲律賓全國大選的計票結果……………………………………………….72
表3-1：後馬可仕時期（1986－2001年），菲律賓總統一覽表…………………………...80
表3-2：艾奎諾政府的內閣名單…………………………………………………………….83
表3-3：1992年菲律賓全國大選成果統計………………………………………………….85
表3-4：羅慕斯政府的內閣名單…………………………………………………………….87
表3-5：1998年菲律賓全國大選成果統計………………………………………………….89
表3-6：艾斯特拉達政府的內閣名單……………………………………………………….91
表3-7：1996-1999年菲律賓的經濟指標……………………………………………………92
表3-8：菲律賓近十年來（1992-2001）的總體經濟指標…………………………………93
表3-9：艾奎諾總統（1986-1992年）之施政滿意度評比…………………………………95
表3-10：艾斯特拉達總統的廚房內閣名單……………………………………………..….98
表3-11：艾奎諾總統任內的軍事政變……………..………………………………………107
表4-1：艾斯特拉達貪瀆調查（2000年），眾議院之檢控官成員………………………..117
表4-2：參議院調查法庭（2001年）之重要證人…………………………………………119
表4-3：參議院調查法庭（2001年）之表決結果統計……………………………………120
表4-4：1986-2000年，菲律賓的總體經濟表現…………………………………………..128
表5-1：艾斯特拉達總統的緋聞名單………………………………………………………149
表5-2：菲律賓歷屆總統（1935-1969年）階級背景統計………………………………..154
表5-3：1950-2000年，菲律賓各主要地區的菁英家族…………………………………...157
表5-4：二次乙莎革命前（第四至八屆）之參議員名單…………………………………..159
表5-5：二次乙莎革命後（第九至十二屆）之參議員名單………………………………..160
表6-1：菲律賓歷屆總統（1946－1972年）階級族群身分…………………………………170
表6-2：菲律賓歷屆總統（1986－2001年）階級族群身分………………………………172

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－1999，「菲律賓的政黨政治：從兩黨政治到多黨政治之轉變」，問題與研 究，第38卷第5期，頁31-58。
曾怡禎，1999，「走出失樂園的菲律賓」，台灣經濟研究月刊，第22卷第8期，頁59-64。
馮 雷，2000，「菲律賓天主教會同馬科斯政權的關係」，東南亞研究（中國廣州暨南大學），第4期，頁53-57。
楊宏雲，2000，「從〈巴黎條約〉到〈泰丁斯－麥克杜菲法〉：美統時期美國對菲律賓關稅和貿易政策的演變及其影響」，南洋問題研究，第4期，頁75-83。
楊俊雄，1999，「菲律賓政經情勢」，輸出入金融雙月刊，第80期，頁10-18。
楊衛民、祁可前，2001，「馬可仕獨裁下的菲律賓土地改革（1972-1986）」，史學月刊，第5期，頁105-109。
楊聰榮，2001，「菲律賓獨立革命與西美戰爭：論東南亞自主歷史史觀下國族歷史論述的成就與侷限」，新史學，第12卷第1期，頁187-232。
翟 坤，2001，「菲律賓艾斯特拉達彈劾案」，國際資料信息，第2期，頁20-22。
趙建中，2002，「2001年菲律賓與印尼政權移轉經驗對民主憲政的意義」，黃埔學報，第42輯，頁79-95。
蔣細定，2000，「菲律賓社會經濟：進展與問題」，南洋問題研究，第101期，頁13-18。
羅石圃，1984，「艾奎諾遇害對馬可仕政權的震撼」，問題與研究，第23卷第1期，頁14-22。
－1984，「菲國會改選結果與影響」，問題與研究，第23卷第9期，頁29-38。
－1987，「菲律賓『八二八』兵變及其影響」，問題與研究，第27卷第2期，頁57-64。
顧長永，1990，「論由盛而衰的菲律賓糖業」，問題與研究，第29卷第8期，頁42-54。
－1995，「美軍撤離菲律賓事件的決策分析」，歐美研究，第25卷第1期，頁37-64。
◎報章雜誌
Biz News Asia, Vol.2, No.40（December 13-20, 2004）
Far Eastern Economic Review（October, 2000-May, 2001）
亞洲週刊（2000年5月-2001年5月）
◎ 網站資訊
http://www.senate.gov.ph（菲律賓參議院網站）；
http://www.congress.gov.ph（菲律賓眾議院網站）；
http://www.up.edu.ph（菲律賓大學網站）；
http://www.worldnews.com.ph（菲律賓世界日報網站）；
http://straitstimes.asial.com.sg（新加坡海峽時報網站）；
http://www.cia.gov/（美國中情局網站）。
◎ 英文部分
一、專書
Abueva, Jose V. and Emerlinda R. Roman（eds.）, 1993, Corazon C. Aquino: Early Assessments of Her Presidential Leadership and Administration and Her Place in History. Manila: University of the Philippines Press.
Abueva, Jose V.（et al.）（eds.）, 1998, The Ramos Presidency and Administration: Record and Legacy（1992-1998）. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.
－－1998, The Philippines into the 21st Century: Future Scenarios for Governance, Democracy and Development, 1998-2025. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.
Agoncillo, Teodoro A. and Milagros C. Cuerrero, 1983, History of the Filipino People. Quezon City: R.P. Garcia Pub.
Agpalo, Remigio E., 1972, The Political Elite and the People: A Study of Politics in Occidental Mindoro. Manila: College of Public Administration, University of the Philippines.
－－1973, The Organic-Hierarchical Paradigm and Politics in the Philippines. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.
Almond, Gabriel A. and Sidney Verba, 1965, The Civic Culture. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Aquino, Belinda A., 1987, Politics of Plunder: The Philippines under Marcos. Quezon City: Great Books Trading.
Barreveld, Drs. Dirk J., 2001, ERAP OUSTED, People Power versus Chinese Conspiracy. Philippines, Cebu: Arcilla Travel Guides Incorporated.
Bello, Walden ,David Kinley and Elaine Elinson, 1982, Development Debacle: The World Bank in the Philippines. San Francisco: Food First Books.
Bernas, Joaquin G., S. J.（ed.）, 2002, A Living Constitution: The Abbreviated Estrada Presidency. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Bolongaita, Emil P. Jr., 1999, “The Philippines: Consolidating Democracy in Difficult Times” in Chia Siow Yue（et al.）（eds.） Southeast Asian Affairs 1999. Singapore: ISEAS.
Boudreau, Vincent, 2000, Grass roots and Cadre in the Protest Movement. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Bresnan, John, 1986, Crisis in the Philippines: The Marcos era and Beyond. New York: Princeton University Press.
Broad, Robin, 1988, Unequal Alliance: The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Philippines. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Buss, Claude A., 1987, Cory Aquino and The People of the Philippines. California, Stanford: Stanford Alumni Association.
Caoili, Olivia C., 1993, The Philippine Congress: Executive-Legislative Relations and The Restoration of Democracy. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.
Cariño, Ledivina V., 1988, Bureaucracy for A Democracy: The Struggle of the Philippine Political Leadership and the Civil Service in the Post-Marcos Period. Quezon City: Publications Office, College of Public Administration in University of the Philippines.
Celoza, Albert F., 1998, Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: The Political Economy of Authoritarianism. Singapore: Toppan Company (S) Pte Ltd.
Chapman, William, 1987, Inside the Philippine Revolution: The New People’s Army and Its Struggle for Power. New York: W. W. Norton and Company.
Chee, Chan Heng, 1993, “ Democracy: Evolution and Implementation- An Asian Perspective” in Robert L. Bartley (et al.) (eds.), Democracy and Capitalism: Asian and American Perspectives. Singapore: ISEAS.
Collier, Ruth B. and David Collier, 1991, Shaping the Political Arena. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Collins, Joseph, 1989, The Philippines: Fire on the Rim. CA, San Francisco: A Food First Book.
Congress of the Philippines, 1998, The Estrada Presidency: A Prersidency fir the People. Manila: Congress of the Philippines Press.
Constantino, Renato, 1976, Dissent in Philippine Society: The Filipino Elite. Quezon City: Malaya Books, Inc.
Coronel, Sheila S., 2000, Investigating Estrada: Millions, Mansions and Mistresses. Quezon City: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism.
Corpuz, Onofre D., 1969, “ Cultural Foundations”, in Jose V. Abueva and Raul P. de Guzman (eds.), Foundations and Dynamics of Filipino Government and Politics. Manila: The Bookmark Inc.
Cortes, Irene R., 1966, The Philippine Presidency: A Study of Executive Power. Quezon City: Law Center in University of the Philippines.
Coser, Lewis A. (ed.), 1977, Masters of Sociological thought ideas in Historical and Social Context. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Dahl, Robert A., 1956, A Preface to Democratic theory. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Davis, Leonard, 1989, Revolutionary Struggle in the Philippines. London: The Camelt Press.
De Guzman, Raul and Mila A. Reforma, 1988, Government and Politics of the Philippines. New York: Oxford University Press.
Doronila, Amando, 1992, The State, Economic Transformation, and Political Change in the Philippines （1946-1972）. Singapore: Oxford University Press.
－－2001, Between Fires: Fifteen Perspectives on the Estrada Crisis. Makati City: Philippine Daily Inquirer, Inc.
－－2002, Investigating Estrada: Millions, Mansions and Mistresses: A Compilation of Investigative Reports. Manila: Inquirer Books.
－－2002, The Fall of Joseph Estrada: The Inside Story. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing.
Emerson, Rupert, 1955, Representative Government in Southeast Asia. Mass., Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Federation of Filipino-Chinese, 1995, Ruby Anniversary 1994: Commemorative Album. Philippine, Manila: Chambers of Commerce and Industry, Inc.
Ferrer, Miriam Coronel, 2000, “The Philippines: Governance Issues come to the Fore” in Southeast Asian Affairs, 2001. Singapore: ISEAS.
－－ 2004, Elections and the Zigzag Path to Democratic Consolidation In the Philippines. Paper presented at the Philippine Political Science Association Conference, 22-23 Oct. in Manila.
Gleeck, Lewis E. Jr, 1987, President Marcos and The Philippine Political Culture. Manila: Loyal Printing.
Golay, Frank H.（et al.）, 1969, Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism in Southeast Asia. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Gonzalez, Joaquin L. III, 2001, “Philippines Continuing People Power” in John Funston（ed.）, Government and Politics in Southeast Asia. Singapore: ISEAS.
Grunder, Garel A. and William E. Livezey, 1997, The Philippines and the United States. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Hawes, Gary, 1987, The Philippine State and the Marcos Regime: The Politics of Export. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
Hayden, Joseph Ralston, 1950, The Philippines: A Study in National Development. New York: Macmillan.
Hsiao, Hsin-Huang Michael, 2001, Exploration of The Middle Classes in Southeast Asia. Taipei: PROSEA.
Jones, Gregg R., 1989, Red Revolution: Inside the Philippine Guerrilla Movement. Boulder: West-view Press.
Juan, Linz, and Alfred Stepan, 1996, Problem of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Kang, David C., 2002, Crony Capitalism: Corruption and Development in South Korea and the Philippines. UK: The Cambridge University Press.
Kerkvliet, Benedict J. Tria, 1990, Everyday Politics in the Philippines: Class and Status Relations in a Central Luzon Village. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Kessler, Richard J., 1989, Rebellion and Repression in the Philippines. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Lande, Carl B., 1973, “Leadership and Follower-ship in a Philippines’ Village” in John T. McAlister, Jr. (ed.), Southeast Asia, The Politics of National Integration. New York: Random House.
Lande, Carl H., 1965, Leaders, Factions and Parties: The Structure of Philippine Politics. New York: Yale University, the Center of Southeast Asia Studies Press.
－－ 1996, Post-Marcos Politics: A Geographical and Statistical Analysis of the 1992 Presidential Election. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Laothamatas, Anek（ed.）,1999, Democratization in Southeast Asia and East Asia. Singapore, ISEAS.
Laquian, Aprodicio A. and Eleanor R. Laquian, 2002, The Erap Tragedy: Tales from The Snake Pit. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, Inc.
Lasch, Christopher, 1995, The Revolt of the Elites and the Betrayal of Democracy. New York: W.W. Norton.
Lasswell, Harold, 1936, Politics: Who gets What, When, How? New York: McGraw-Hill.
Liang, Dapen, 1939, The Development of Philippine Political Parties. Hong Kong: South China Morning Post.
Linz, Juan J. and Alfred Stepan, 1996, Problem of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-communist Europe. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Lipset, Martin S., 1959, Social Mobility in Industrial Society. Berkeley: University of California Press,
Majul, Cesar Adib, 1996, The Political and Constitutional ideas of the Philippine Revolution. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.
Mangahas, Mahar, 1994, The Philippine Social Climate. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, Inc.
Maramba, Asuncion David（et al.）（eds.）, 2000, Seven in the Eye of History. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, Inc.
Martinez, Manuel Festin, 1999, A Political of Our Time: Presidential Policies from Aquino to Estrada. Paranaque City: MFM Enterprise.
May, R. J. and Francisco Nemenzo（eds.）, 1985, The Philippines After Marcos. London: Croom Helm.
McCoy, Alfred W., 1993, “ An Anarchy of Families: The Historiography of State and Family in the Philippines”, in Alfred W. McCoy (ed.), An Anarchy of Families: State and Family in the Philippines. Madison: Center for Southeast Asian Studies University of Wisconsin-Madison.
McGeveran, William A., Jr. (eds.)(et al.) , 2003, The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2002. New York: World Almanac Books.
Michels, Robert, 1959, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy. New York: Dover.
Moore, Brington, 1966, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World. Boston: Beacon Press.
Mosca, Gaetano, 1939, The Ruling Class. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Neher, Clark D. and Ross Marlay, 1995, “ The Philippines” in Democracy and Development in Southeast Asia: The Winds of Change. UK: West-view Press.
O’Donnell, Guillermo A.、 Philippe C. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead（eds.）, 1991, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Office of the President, 1992, The Aquino Administration: Record and Legacy（1986-1992）. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.
Pangilinan, Noel T., Eric U. Gutierrez and Ildefonso C. Torrente（eds.）,1992 , All in the Family: A study of elites and Power relations in the Philippines. Quezon City: Institute for Popular Democracy.
Paredes, Ruby R.（ed.）,1988, Philippine Colonial Democracy. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Phelan, John Leddy, 1967, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Response 1565-1700. Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press.
Pomeroy, William J., 1992, Colonialism, Collaboration, and Resistance. New York: International Publishers.
Porter, Gareth, and Delfin J. Ganopin, Jr., 1988, Resource, Population and the Philippines. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.
Putnam, Robert D., 1976, The Comparative Study of Political Elites. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Putzel, James, 1992, A Captive Land: the Politics of Agranian Reform in the Philippines. Manila: Catholic Institute for International Relations Monthly Review Press and Ateneo University Press.
Rama, Napoleon G. (ed.), 1998, Manila Bulletin: The Nation’s Leading Newspaper. Quezon City: Manila Bulletin Publishing Corporation.
Rho, Byeongil, 1992, State Capability and Third World Politics: A Comparative Analysis of South Korean and Philippine cases. A Dissertation submitted to the State University of New York at Albany.
Riedinger, Jeffrey, 1995, Agrarian Reform in the Philippine: Democratic Transitions and Re-distributive Reform. California: Stanford University press.
Riggs, Fred W., 1975, The Ecology of Public Administration. London: Asia Publishing House.
Roces, Mina, 2001, Kinship Politics in Postwar Philippines: The Lopez Family, 1946-2000. Manila: De La Salle University Press, Inc.
Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, E. Stephens and J. Stephens, 1992, Capitalist Development And Democracy. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Solon, Orville Jose C., Raul V. Fabella and Joseph J. Capuno, 2001, “ Is Local Development Good Politics? Local Development Expenditures and the Reelection of Governors in the Philippines for 1992, 1995 and 1998.” UPSE Discussion Papers in Quezon City, Manila.
Tatad, Francisco S., 2002, A Nation on Fire: The Unmaking of Joseph Ejercito Estrada and the Remaking of Democracy in the Philippines. Quezon City: Icon Press Inc.
Taylor, George. E., 1974, The Philippines and the United States: Problems of Partnership. New York: Praeger.
Thompson, Mark R., 1996, The Anti-Marcos Struggle: Personalistic Rule and Democratic Transition in the Philippines. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Thompson, W. Scott, 1992, The Philippines in Crisis: Development and Security in The Aquino era（1986-1992）. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Tigno, Jorge V., 2005, “Economic Viability and Local Governance: The Political Economy of Decentralization in the Philippines” in Yasutami Shimomura（ed.）, The Role of Governance in Asia. Singapore: ISEAS.
Timberman, David G., 1991, A Changeless Land: Continuity and Change in Philippine Politics. Singapore: ISEAS.
Tolentino, Rolando B., 2001, National / Transnational: Subject Formation and Media In and On the Philippines. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Torbjorn, Tannsjo, 1997, Populist Democracy: A Defence. New York: Routledge.
Tordesillas, Ellen and Greg Hutchinson, 2001, Hot Money and Warm Bodies: The Downfall of Philippine President Joseph Estrada. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, Inc.
Turner, Mark, 1987, Regime Change in the Philippines: The Legitimation of the Aquino Government. Canberra: Australian National University.
UST Social Research Center, 1996, The Philippine Revolution and The Involvement of The Church. Manila: Social Research Center University of Santo Thomas.
Velasco, Rheno A.（ed.）, 2001, The President in Republic of the Philippines. Quezon City: Loacan Publishing House.
Wingspread, Racine, 1986, The Philippines and the United States. New York: The Asia Society.
Wolters, Willem, 1983, Politics, Patronage and Class Conflict in Central Luzon. The Hague: Institute of Social Studies.
Wurfel, David, 1969, “ Individuals and Groups in the Philippine Policy” in Jose V. Abueva and Raul P. de Guzman (eds.), Foundations and Dynamics of Filipino Government and Politics. Quezon City: The Bookmark Inc.
－－1988, Filipino Politics: Development and Decay. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
Wynne, Alison, 1980, No Time for Crying: Stories of Philippine Women. Hong Kong: Resource Center for Philippine Concerns.
二、期刊論文與學位論文
Abueva, Jose V., 1964, “Bridging the Gap Between the Elite and the People in the Philippines” Philippine Journal of Public Administration. Vol.8, No.4: 325-347.
Adriano, F. D., 1984, “A Critique of the ‘ Bureaucratic Authoritarian State’ Thesis: The Case of the Philippines” Journal of Contemporary Asia. Vol.14, No.4: 459-484.
Agpalo, Remigio E., 1971, “The Philippine Political System in the Perspective of History” Philippine Journal of Public Administration. Vol.15, No.3-4: 239-258.
Alatas, Syed Farid, 1993, “Theoretical Perspectives on the Role of State Elites in Southeast Asian Development” Contemporary Southeast Asia. Vol.14, No.4: 368-395.
Ando, Hirofumi, 1971, Elections in the Philippines: Mass-Elite Interaction through the Electoral Process. Ph. D. Dissertation, The University of Michigan.
Bankoff, Greg, 1999, “A History of Poverty: The Politics of natural disasters in the Philippines, 1985-95” The Pacific Review. Vol.12, No.3: 381-420.
Bastiaan van de Loo, 2004, “ The Failure of the Philippine Presidential System” Asia Europe Journal. Vol.2, No.2: 257-269.
Bauzon, Kenneth E., 1990, “The Multilateral Assistance Initiative and Democratization in the Philippines” Contemporary Southeast Asia. Vol.12, No.2: 120-133.
Bello, W., 1984, “Benigno Aquino: Between Dictatorship and Revolution in the Philippines” Third World Quarterly. Vol.6, No.2: 283-309.
Bertrand, Jacques, 2000, “Peace and conflict in the Southern Philippines: Why the 1996 Peace Agreement is fragile.” Pacific Affairs, Vol.73, No.1: 37-54.
Blume, Francine Barbara, 1993, The Process of Nonviolent Politics: Lessons from the Philippines. Ph. D. Dissertation, The University of Hawaii.
Brillantes, Alex B. Jr., 1993, “ The Philippines in 1992: Ready for Take Off?” Asian Survey. Vol.33, No.2: 224-230.
Bryant, Raymond L., 2002, “Non-governmental Organizations and Governmentality: ‘Consuming‘ Biodiversity and Indigenous People in the Philippines” Political Studies. Vol.50: 268-292.
Buendia, Rizal G., 1993, “Colonialism and Elitism in Philippine Political Development: Assessing the Roots of Underdevelopment” Philippine Journal of Public Administration. Vol.37, No.2 :141-174.
Case, William, 1999, “ The Philippine Election in 1998: A Question of Quality” Asian Survey. Vol.39, No.3: 468-485.
Choi, Jungug, 2001, “Philippines Democracies Old and New: Election, Term Limits, And Party Systems” Asian Survey. Vol.41, No.3: 488-501.
Corning, Gregory P., 1990, “ The Philippine Bases and U.S. Pacific Strategy” Pacific Affairs. Vol.63, No.1: 6-23.
Corpuz, Onofre D.,1985, “Filipino Political Parties and Politics” Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Review. Vol.23, No.2-4: 141-157.
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Doronila, Amando, 1985, “ The Transformation of Patron-Client Relations and Its Political Consequences in Post-War Philippines” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. Vol.16, No.1: 99-116.
Eaton, Kent, 2003, “Restoration or Transformation? Trapos versus NGOs in the Democratization of the Philippines” The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol.62, No.2: 469-496.
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Green, Justin J., 1973, “Social Backgrounds, Attitudes and Political Behavior: A Study of a Philippine Elite” Southeast Asia. Vol.2, No.3: 301-336.
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－－1990, “Theories of Peasant Revolution: A Critique and Contribution From the Philippines” World Politics. Vol.42, No.2: 261-298.
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－－1997, “The Philippines in 1996: A House Finally in Order?” Asian Survey. Vol.37, No.2: 204-211.
Hill, Hal, 1988, “The Philippine Economy Under Aquino: New Hopes, Old Problem” Asian Survey. Vol.28, No.3: 261-285.
Hutchcroft, Paul D., 1991, “ Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State: The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder” World Politics. Vol.43, No.3: 414-450.
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－－1998, “Changing Patterns of Leadership Recruitment and the Emergence of the Professional Politician in Philippine Local Politics Re-examined: An Aspect of Political Development and Decay” Southeast Asian Studies. Vol.36, No.2: 206-229.
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－－1990, “Populist Praetorians in the Philippines” A Journal of Chinese Studies and International Affairs. Vol.26, No.9: 84-110.
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－－1999, “ The Philippines in 1998: Opportunity amid Crisis” Asian Survey. Vol.39, No.1: 64-71.
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Reid, Ben, 2000, “Crisis in the Philippines Left: Implications for the Asia Pacific” Journal of Contemporary Asia. Vol.30, No.2: 181-199.
－－2001, “The Philippine Democratic Uprising and the Contradictions of Neo-liberalism: EDSA II” Third World Quarterly. Vol.22, No.5: 777-793.
Rho, Byeongil, 1992, State Capability and Third World Politics: A Comparative Analysis of South Korean and Philippine Cases. Ph. D. Dissertation, The State University of. New York at Albany.
Riedinger, Jeffrey, 1994, “The Philippines in 1993: Halting Steps Toward Liberalization” Asian Survey. Vol.34, No.2: 139-146.
－－1995, “The Philippines in 1994: Renewed Growth and Contested Reforms” Asian Survey. Vol.35, No.2: 209-216.
Ringuet, Daniel Joseph and Elsa Estrada, 2003, “Understanding the Philippines’ Economy and Politics since the Return of Democracy in 1986” Contemporary Southeast Asia. Vol.25, No.2: 233-250.
Rivera, Temario C.,1994, “The State, Civil Society, and Foreign Actors: The Politics of Philippine Industrialization” Contemporary Southeast Asia. Vol.16, No.2: 157-177.
－－ 2002, “Transition Pathways and Democratic Consolidation in Post-Marcos Philippines” Contemporary Southeast Asia. Vol.24, No.3: 466-483.
Rogers, Steven, 2004, “Philippine Politics and The Rule of Law” Journal of Democracy. Vol.15, No.4: 111-127.
Romero, Segundo E., 1998, “The Philippines in 1997: Weathering Political and Economic Turmoil” Asian Survey. Vol.38, No.2: 196-202.
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Roxas, Gerardo M., 1963, “The Pork Barrel System” Philippine Journal of Public Administration. Vol.7 No.4: 254-257.
Rüland, Jürgen, 2003, “Constitutional Debates in the Philippines: From Presidentialism to Parliamentarianism” Asian Survey. Vol.43, No.3: 461-484.
Rustow, D., 1970, “Transitions to Democracy” Comparative Politics, Vol.2: 340-419.
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