1998年珊瑚大白化事件造成世界上多處珊瑚礁受損，例如東沙環礁潟湖區內的軸孔珊瑚便消失在12年前的大白化中，至今無明顯恢復跡象。本論文針對此現象，提出三個假說：缺乏入添、東沙環礁潟湖內水溫干擾軸孔珊瑚的復原或軸孔珊瑚受到掠食者威脅，解釋影響復原的主要因素。以東沙環礁潟湖區中的塊礁（Patch reef）為測站，調查礁頂（Reef top）、礁底（Reef base）、礁坡（Reef slope）及礁間（Inter-patch-reef），取得珊瑚科別分布、小珊瑚密度、珊瑚生長速率及是否有掠食者等資料；此外，於東沙島附近採集珊瑚樣本，觀察生殖腺發育，並從東沙島北方移植美麗軸孔珊瑚至潟湖內3米及9米深處。實驗結果顯示，雖然軸孔珊瑚有正常的生殖力，並於2010年在3月至5月進行配子排放，但東沙環礁潟湖中珊瑚覆蓋率僅16%（軸孔珊瑚佔其中8%），小珊瑚密度為1.5個/平方公尺（軸孔珊瑚佔其中3%），低於其他潟湖區域。在年間水溫差異上，2010年顯著高於2009年；從珊瑚生長率皆未發現顯著減緩趨勢；而移植實驗顯示經過夏季（超過30℃比例：40-64%）珊瑚仍展現高存活率。在兩年調查中，僅發現6隻棘冠海星。因此缺乏入添應是影響東沙潟湖裡軸孔珊瑚復原的最大因素。

Many coral reefs around the world were damaged during the 1998 mass bleaching event. The acroporids in the lagoon of Dongsha Atoll were eliminated during massive bleaching, and they are still not recovered. Three hypotheses were proposed to explain how the lagoon of Dongsha Atoll has not recovered during the past twelve years：1. the lack of recruitment, 2. the persistent interfering on newly recruiting acroporids by hot water, 3.the interfering on those acroporids by predators. Four types of habitats, i.e., reef tops, reef slopes, reef bases, and inter-patch-reefs were surveyed on their coral communities, densities of juvenile corals, growth rates, pests and diseases of corals. The tissue samples were collected to assess reproductive status of corals. Moreover, Acropora muricata branches were transplanted from north coast of Dongsha Island to 3 m and 9 m depths in the lagoon of Dongsha Atoll for testing suitability of the environment. The acroporids were mature, and they spawned between March and May in 2010. Live coral coverage was 16% on average; small coral densities were 1.5/m2, much lower than other lagoons. Besides, acroporid represented 8% of coral coverage and 4% of juvenile corals which are lower than those of other lagoon. Water temperatures were higher in 2010 than 2009. However, coral skeletal extension rates do not show any reign of reduction. In addition, most acroporids survived 2010 summer（sea water temperature exceeded 30℃：40-64%） in the transplantation experiment. During two years of survey, only 6 individuals Acanthaster planci. So the lack of recruits might be the bottleneck to the recovery of acroporid in Dongsha lagoon.

論文審定書 i
謝辭 ii
中文摘要 iii
英文摘要 iv
目錄 v
圖次 vi
表次 vii
第一章 前言 1
1.1 珊瑚礁 1
1.2 溫度對珊瑚的影響 2
1.3 影響東沙環礁潟湖內軸孔珊瑚復原的因素 3
貳、材料與方法 5
2.1研究地點 5
2.2珊瑚覆蓋率與小珊瑚入添 5
2.3生殖能力 6
2.4團塊型微孔珊瑚生長率 7
2.5珊瑚掠食者影響 7
2.6移植 7
2.7溫度監測 8
參、結果 9
3.1 珊瑚覆蓋率與小珊瑚入添 9
3.2 生殖 11
3.3 生長率 12
3.4 生物性因子影響 13
3.5 復原瓶頸測試（移植） 13
3.6 溫度監測 14
肆、討論 16
4.1 假說甲：缺乏入添 16
4.2 假說乙：東沙環礁潟湖內水溫干擾軸孔珊瑚復原？ 19
4.3 假說丙：軸孔珊瑚受到疾病或掠食者威脅？ 21
4.4 瓶頸與復育策略 23
參考文獻 24
附錄 57

宋克義、陳昭倫、王志騰、野澤洋耕，2009，東沙環礁珊瑚群聚調查分析與復育策略研究（一）。海洋國家公園管理處委託研究報告。
邵仁林，1995，中國珊瑚礁的現況與保育對策。生物多樣性研究進展。北京。
馬廷英，1959，Effect of water temperature on growth rate of reef corals。The world book。台北，台灣。
陳陽益、王玉懷、李忠潘、薛憲文、田文敏、劉金源、戴昌鳳、曾若玄，2008，東沙內環礁海域海流、水深與棲地調查。海洋國家公園管理處委託研究報告。
黃鐙毅、宋克義，2010，東沙環礁珊瑚群具空間分布差異的探討。國立中山大學海洋生物研究所。台灣。中華民國。
戴昌鳳，2005，東沙海域生態基礎調查研究，第肆章 珊瑚類資源的調查。內政部營建署委託辦理報告。
戴昌鳳，2006，東沙海域珊瑚礁生態資源調查與監測（一），第肆章 珊瑚類資源的調查。內政部營建署委託辦理報告。
戴昌鳳，2008，東沙海域珊瑚礁生態資源調查與監測（二），第肆章 珊瑚類資源的調查。海洋國家公園管理處委託辦理報告。
Adjeroud, M., J. M. Fernandez, A. G. Carroll, P. L. Harrison, and L. Penin. 2010. Spatial patterns and recruitment processes of coral assemblages among contrasting environmental conditions in the southwestern lagoon of New Caledonia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 61(7-12):375-386.
Ateweberhan, M., and T. R. McClanahan. 2010. Relationship between historical sea-surface temperature variability and climate change-induced coral mortality in the western Indian Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60(7):964-970.
Atwood, D. K., J. C. Hendee, and A. Mendez. 1992. An assessment of global warming stress on Caribbean coral reef ecosystems. Bulletin of Marine Science 51(1):118-130.
Bak, R. P. M. 1978. Lethal and sublethal effects of dredging on reef corals. Marine Pollution Bulletin 9(1):14-16.
Barott, K. L., and coauthors. 2010. The lagoon at Caroline/Millennium Atoll, republic of Kiribati: Natural history of a nearly pristine ecosystem. PLoS ONE 5(6):e10950.
Berkelmans, R., and J. K. Oliver. 1999. Large-scale bleaching of corals on the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 18(1):55-60.
Bosscher, H. 1993. Computerized-tomography and skeletal density of coral skeletons. coral reefs 12(2):97-103.
Brown, B. E., and J. C. Ogden. 1993. Coral bleaching. Scientific American 268(1):64-70.
Brown, B. E., and Suharsono. 1990. Damage and recovery of coral reefs affected by El Niño related seawater warming in the Thousand Islands, Indonesia. Coral Reefs 8(4):163-170.
Bruckner, A. W., and R. L. Hill. 2009. Ten years of change to coral communities off Mona and Desecheo Islands, Puerto Rico, from disease and bleaching. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 87(1-2):19-31.
Bryan, E. H. 1953. Check list of atolls. Atoll Research Bulletin 19:1-38.
Caldeira, K., and M. E. Wickett. 2003. Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH. Nature 425(6956):365-365.
Cesar, H. 1996. Economic analysis of Indonesian coral reefs. World Bank
Chesher, R. H. 1969. Destruction of Pacific corals by sea star Acanthaster planci. Science 165(3890):280-283.
Collen, J. D., and D. W. Garton. 2004. Larger foraminifera and sedimentation around Fongafale Island, Funafuti Atoll, Tuvalu. Coral Reefs 23(3):445-454.
Collins, M., and coauthors. 2010. The impact of global warming on the tropical Pacific ocean and El Niño. Nature Geoscience 3(6):391-397.
Connell, J. H., T. P. Hughes, and C. C. Wallace. 1997. A 30-year study of coral abundance, recruitment, and disturbance at several scales in space and time. Ecological Monographs 67(4):461-488.
Connell, J. H., and O. A. Jones. 1973. Population ecology of reef-building corals. Pages 205-245 in R. Endean, editor. Biology and Geology of Coral Reefs., volume II, New York.
Dai, C. F., K. Soong and T.Y. Fan 1992. Sexual reproduction of corals in northern and southern Taiwan. Pages 448-455 in Proc. 7th Coral Reef Symp., Guam
Darwin, C. R. 1842. The structure and distribution of coral reefs. Being the first part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Smith Elder and Co, London.
De'ath, G., J. M. Lough, and K. E. Fabricius. 2009. Declining coral calcification on the Great Barrier Reef. Science 323(5910):116-119.
Diaz-Pulido, G., S. Harii, L. J. McCook, and O. Hoegh-Guldberg. 2010. The impact of benthic algae on the settlement of a reef-building coral. Coral Reefs 29(1):203-208.
Dodge, R. E., R. C. Aller, and J. Thomson. 1974. Coral growth related to resuspension of bottom sediments. Nature 247(5442):574-576.
Dodge, R. E., and J. R. Vaisnys. 1975. Hermatypic coral growth banding as environmental recorder. Nature 258(5537):706-708.
Donaldson, T. J., and Y. Sadovy. 2001. Threatened fishes of the world: Cheilinus undulatus Ruppell, 1835 (Labridae). Environmental Biology of Fishes 62(4):428-428.
Dulvy, N. K., R. P. Freckleton, and N. V. C. Polunin. 2004. Coral reef cascades and the indirect effects of predator removal by exploitation. Ecology Letters 7(5):410-416.
Edinger, E. N., J. Jompa, G. V. Limmon, W. Widjatmoko, and M. J. Risk. 1998. Reef degradation and coral biodiversity in Indonesia: Effects of land-based pollution, destructive fishing practices and changes over time. Marine Pollution Bulletin 36(8):617-630.
Edinger, E. N., and J. R. Michael. 2000. Reef classification by coral morphology predicts coral reef conservation value. Biological Conservation 92:1-13.
Edmunds, P. J. 2000. Patterns in the distribution of juvenile corals and coral reef community structure in St. John, US Virgin Islands. Marine Ecology-Progress Series 202:113-124.
Fadlallah, Y. H. 1983. Sexual reproduction, development and larval biology in scleractinian corals Coral Reefs (2):129-150.
Fan, T. Y., and C. F. Dai. 1999. Reproductive plasticity in the reef coral Echinopora lamellosa. Marine Ecology-Progress Series 190:297-301.
Faure, G. 1989. Degradation of coral reefs at Moorea Island (French Polynesia) by Acanthaster planci. Journal of Coastal Research 5(2):295-305.
Garcia, J. R., and P. M. Aliño. 2008. Factors influencing coral recruitment patterns in the Sulu Sea marine corridors. Proceedings of the 11th International Coral Reef Symposium, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida.
Garrison, V., and G. Ward. 2008. Storm-generated coral fragments: A viable source of transplants for reef rehabilitation. Biological Conservation 141(12):3089-3100.
Gilmour, J. 1999. Experimental investigation into the effects of suspended sediment on fertilisation, larval survival and settlement in a scleractinian coral. Marine Biology 135(3):451-462.
Gilmour, J. P., L. D. Smith, and R. M. Brinkman. 2009. Biannual spawning, rapid larval development and evidence of self-seeding for scleractinian corals at an isolated system of reefs. Marine Biology 156(6):1297-1309.
Glynn, P. W. 1984. Widespread coral mortality and the 1982-83 El Niño warming event. Environmental Conservation 11(2):133-146.
Glynn, P. W., and D. A. Krupp. 1986. Feeding biology of a Hawaiian sea star corallivore, Culcita novaeguineae Muller and Troschel. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 96(1):75-96.
Glynn, P. W., J. L. Mate, A. C. Baker, and M. O. Calderon. 2001. Coral bleaching and mortality in panama and ecuador during the 1997-1998 El Niño-Southern oscillation event: Spatial/temporal patterns and comparisons with the 1982-1983 event. Bulletin of Marine Science 69(1):79-109.
Golbuu, Y., and coauthors. 2007. Palau's coral reefs show differential habitat recovery following the 1998-bleaching event. Coral Reefs 26(2):319-332.
Goreau, T., T. McClanahan, R. Hayes, and A. Strong. 2000. Conservation of coral reefs after the 1998 global bleaching event. Conservation Biology 14(1):5-15.
Goreau, T. F., and N. I. Goreau. 1959. The Physiology of skeleton formation in corals .2. Calcium deposition by hermatypic corals under various conditions in the reef. Biological Bulletin 117(2):239-250.
Goreau, T. J., and A. H. Macfarlane. 1990. Reduced growth rate of Montastrea annularis following the 1987-1988 coral bleaching event. Coral Reefs 8(4):211-215.
Gosselin, L. A., and P. Y. Qian. 1997. Juvenile mortality in benthic marine invertebrates. Marine Ecology-Progress Series 146(1-3):265-282.
Graham, E. M., A. H. Baird, and S. R. Connolly. 2008. Survival dynamics of scleractinian coral larvae and implications for dispersal. Coral Reefs 27(3):529-539.
Green, D. H., P. J. Edmunds, X. Pochon, and R. D. Gates. 2010. The effects of substratum type on the growth, mortality, and photophysiology of juvenile corals in St. John, US Virgin Islands. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 384(1-2):18-29.
Hawkins, S. V. 2006. Feeding preference of the cushion star, Culcita novaeguineae in Mo’orea. University of California, Berkeley, .
Highsmith, R. C. 1982. Reproduction by fragmentation in corals. Marine Ecology-Progress Series 7(2):207-226.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., and G. J. Smith. 1989. The Effect of sudden changes in temperature, light and salinity on the population density and export of zooxanthellae from the reef corals Stylophora pistillata Esper and Seriatopora hystrix Dana. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 129(3):279-303.
Horoszowski-Fridman, Y. B., I. Izhaki, and B. Rinkevich. 2011. Engineering of coral reef larval supply through transplantation of nursery-farmed gravid colonies. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 399(2):162-166.
Hughes, T. P., and coauthors. 2003. Climate change, human impacts, and the resilience of coral reefs. Science 301(5635):929-933.
Huitric, M., and M. McField. 2001. Effects of multiple disturbances on hard coral recruits in Glover's Reef Atoll's Lagoon, Belize.
Idso, S. B. 1985. The Search for global CO2 etc greenhouse effects. Environmental Conservation 12(1):29-35.
Jokiel, P. L., and S. L. Coles. 1990. Response of Hawaiian and other Indo-Pacific reef corals to elevated temperature. Coral Reefs 8(4):155-162.
Jones, R. J., O. Hoegh-Guldberg, A. W. D. Larkum, and U. Schreiber. 1998. Temperature-induced bleaching of corals begins with impairment of the CO2 fixation mechanism in zooxanthellae. Plant Cell and Environment 21(12):1219-1230.
Kain, J. M. 1989. The seasons in the subtidal. British Phycological Journal 24(3):203-215.
Kerr, R. A. 1998. Warming's unpleasant surprise: Shivering in the greenhouse? Science 281(5374):156-158.
Kleypas, J. A., J. W. McManus, and L. A. B. Menez. 1999. Environmental limits to coral reef development: Where do we draw the line? American Zoologist 39(1):146-159.
Knowlton, N., J. C. Lang, M. C. Rooney, and P. Clifford. 1981. Evidence for delayed mortality in hurricane-damaged Jamaican staghorn corals. Nature 294(5838):251-252.
Knutson, D. W., S. V. Smith, and Buddemei.Rw. 1972. Coral chronometers - seasonal growth bands in reef corals. Science 177(4045):270-272.
Kojis, B. L., and N. J. Quinn. 2001. The importance of regional differences in hard coral recruitment rates for determining the need for coral restoration. Bulletin of Marine Science 69(2):967-974.
Kuo, K. M., and K. Soong. 2010. Post-settlement survival of reef coral juveniles in southern Taiwan. Zoological Studies 49(6).
Lasagna, R., G. Albertelli, P. Colantoni, C. Morri, and C. N. Bianchi. 2010a. Ecological stages of Maldivian reefs after the coral mass mortality of 1998. Facies 56(1):1-11.
Lasagna, R., G. Albertelli, C. Morri, and C. N. Bianchi. 2010b. Acropora abundance and size in the Maldives six years after the 1998 mass mortality: Patterns across reef typologies and depths. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 90(5):919-922.
Leder, J. J., A. M. Szmant, and P. K. Swart. 1991. The Effect of prolonged bleaching on skeletal banding and stable isotopic composition in Montastrea annularis preliminary observations. Coral Reefs 10(1):19-27.
Lindahl, U. 1998. Low-tech rehabilitation of degraded coral reefs through transplantation of staghorn corals. Ambio 27(8):645-650.
Lough, J. M., and D. J. Barnes. 2000. Environmental controls on growth of the massive coral Porites. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 245(2):225-243.
Magnussen, S., and T. J. B. Boyle. 1995. Estimating sample size for inference about the Shannon-Weaver and the Simpson indices of species diversity. Forest Ecology and Management 78(1-3):71-84.
Maragos, J. E. 1974. Coral transplantation: a method to create, preserve, and manage coral reefs. University of Hawaii Sea Grant Prog.
Marshall, P. A., and A. H. Baird. 2000. Bleaching of corals on the Great Barrier Reef: differential susceptibilities among taxa. Coral Reefs 19(2):155-163.
Maynard, J. A., K. R. N. Anthony, P. A. Marshall, and I. Masiri. 2008. Major bleaching events can lead to increased thermal tolerance in corals. Marine Biology 155(2):173-182.
McClanahan, T. R. 2000. Bleaching damage and recovery potential of Maldivian coral reefs. Marine Pollution Bulletin 40(7):587-597.
McClanahan, T. R., and coauthors. 2007. Western Indian Ocean coral communities: bleaching responses and susceptibility to extinction. Marine Ecology-Progress Series 337:1-13.
McClanahan, T. R., and D. Obura. 1997. Sedimentation effects on shallow coral communities in Kenya. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 209(1-2):103-122.
Miller, M. W., E. Weil, and A. M. Szmant. 2000. Coral recruitment and juvenile mortality as structuring factors for reef benthic communities in Biscayne National Park, USA. Coral Reefs 19(2):115-123.
Muhando, C. A., and F. Lanshammar. 2008. Ecological effects of the crown-of-thorns starfish removal programme on Chumbe Island Coral Park, Zanzibar, Tanzania. Proceedings of the 11th International Coral Reef Symposium, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida.
Nie, B. F., and coauthors. 1997. Relationship between coral growth rate and sea surface temperature in the northern part of South China Sea during the past 100 a. Science in China Series D-Earth Sciences 40(2):173-182.
Nozawa, Y., and N. Okubo. 2011. Survival dynamics of reef coral larvae with special consideration of larval size and the Genus Acropora. Biological Bulletin 220(1):15-22.
Okubo, N., T. Motokawa, and M. Omori. 2007. When fragmented coral spawn? Effect of size and timing on survivorship and fecundity of fragmentation in Acropora formosa. Marine Biology 151(1):353-363.
Page, C. A. 2009. Ecology and biology of coral disease on the Great Barriet Reef. James Cook University.
Pearson, R. G. 1981. Recovery and recolonization of coral reefs. Marine Ecology-Progress Series 4(1):105-122.
Pratchett, M. S. 2007. Feeding preferences of Acanthaster planci (Echinodermata : Asteroidea) under controlled conditions of food availability. Pacific Science 61(1):113-120.
Quinn, N. J., and B. L. Kojis. 2003. The dynamics of coral reef community structure and recruitment patterns around Rota, Saipan, and Tinian, western Pacific. Bulletin of Marine Science 72(3):979-996.
Refinetti, R., G. Cornelissen, and F. Halberg. 2007. Procedures for numerical analysis of circadian rhythms. Biological Rhythm Research 38(4):275-325.
Richards, Z. T., M. Beger, S. Pinca, and C. C. Wallace. 2008. Bikini Atoll coral biodiversity resilience five decades after nuclear testing. Marine Pollution Bulletin 56(3):503-515.
Ridgway, T., and O. Hoegh-Guldberg. 2000. Reef recovery in disturbed coral reef ecosystems. Pages 23-27 in Proceedings 9th International Coral Reef Symposium, Bali, Indonesia.
Riegl, B., and G. M. Branch. 1995. Effects of sediment on the energy budgets of 4 scleractinian (Bourne 1900) and 5 alcyonacean (Lamouroux 1816) corals. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 186(2):259-275.
Rinkevich, B. 1995. Restoration strategies for coral reefs damaged by recreational activities: The use of sexual and asexual recruits. Restoration Ecology 3(4):241-251.
Roberts, L. 1987. Coral bleaching threatens Atlantic reefs. science 238(4831):1228-1229.
Rodolfo-Metalpa, R., and coauthors. 2006. Response of zooxanthellae in symbiosis with the Mediterranean corals Cladocora caespitosa and Oculina patagonica to elevated temperatures. Marine Biology 150(1):45-55.
Rogers, C. S. 1983. Sublethal and lethal effects of sediments applied to common Caribbean reef corals in the field. Marine Pollution Bulletin 14(10):378-382.
Rumrill, S. S. 1990. Natural mortality of marine invertebrate larvae. Ophelia 32(1-2):163-198.
Scoffin, T. P., A. W. Tudhope, B. E. Brown, H. Chansang, and R. F. Cheeney. 1992. Patterns and possible environmental controls of skeletogenesis of Porites lutea, South Thailand. Coral Reefs 11(1):1-11.
Smith, L. W. 2004. Influence of water motion on resistance of corals to high temperatures: Evidence from a field transplant experiment.
Soong, K., and coauthors. 2003. Spatial and temporal variation of coral recruitment in Taiwan. Coral Reefs 22(3):224-228.
Soong, K., and T. A. Chen. 2003. Coral transplantation: Regeneration and growth of Acropora fragments in a nursery. Restoration Ecology 11(1):62-71.
Soong, K. Y., and J. C. Lang. 1992. Reproductive integration in reef corals. Biological Bulletin 183(3):418-431.
Spiller, D. A., and T. W. Schoener. 1998. Lizards reduce spider species richness by excluding rare species. Ecology Letters 79:503-516.
Stoddart, D. R. 1962. Catastrophic storm effects on British Honduras reefs and cays. Nature 196(4854):512-515.
Stoddart, D. R. 1965. The shape of atolls Marine Geology 3(5): 369-383
Stoddart, J. A. 1983. Asexual production of planulae in the coral Pocillopora damicornis. Marine Biology 76(3):279-284.
Stone, L., E. Eilam, A. Abelson, and M. Ilan. 1996. Modelling coral reef biodiversity and habitat destruction. Marine Ecology-Progress Series 134(1-3):299-302.
Strathmann, R. R. 1985. Feeding and nonfeeding larval development and life-history evolution in marine-invertebrates. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 16:339-361.
Thorson, G. 1950. Reproductive and larval ecology of marine bottom invertebrates. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 1:1–45.
Todd, P. A., X. Y. Ong, and L. M. Chou. 2010. Impacts of pollution on marine life in Southeast Asia. Biodiversity and Conservation 19(4):1063-1082.
Umezawa, Y., T. Miyajima, M. Yamamuro, H. Kayanne, and I. Koike. 2002. Fine-scale mapping of land-derived nitrogen in coral reefs by delta N-15 in macroalgae. Limnology and Oceanography 47(5):1405-1416.
Underwood, A. J., and P. G. Fairweather. 1989. Supply-side ecology and benthic marine assemblages. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 4(1):16-20.
Vargas-Angel, B., F. A. Zapata, H. Hernandez, and J. M. Jimenez. 2001. Coral and coral reef responses to the 1997-98 El Niño event on the Pacific coast of Colombia. Bulletin of Marine Science 69(1):111-132.
Vaughan, T. W. 1919. Corals and the formation of coral reefs. Annu. Rep. Smithson Inst. 17:189-238.
Vicentuan, K. C., and coauthors. 2008. Multi-species spawning of corals in north-western Philippines. Coral Reefs 27(1):83-83.
Ward, S., P. Harrison, and O. Hoegh-Guldberg. 2000. Coral bleaching reduces reproduction of scleractinian corals and increases susceptibility to future stress. Pages 23-27 in Proceedings 9th International Coral Reef Symposium, Bali, Indonesia.
Wilkinson, C., and G. Hodgson. 1999. Coral reefs and the 1997-1998 mass bleaching and mortality. Nature & Resources 35(2):16-25.
Wilkinson, C. P. 1998. The 1997-1998 Mass bleaching event around the world. Pages 23 in Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Yap, H. T., and E. D. Gomez. 1985. Growth of Acropora pulchra. 3. Preliminary observations on the effects of transplantation and sediment on the growth and survival of transplants. Marine Biology 87(2):203-209.