摘 要

本研究藉由空氣動力學的分析，並考慮紊流作用效應，探討隧道控制體積內氣流之三維流動型態與空氣污染物擴散現象。應用有限體積法建構交通隧道三維數值模式，將車輛污染物排放視為隧道地面之線污染源，利用標準 - 模式紊流模式推估隧道內紊流效應，模擬分析交通隧道內通風效應及氣態污染物擴散分佈情形，探討噴流風扇及車行活塞效應對隧道內氣流之影響以及對氣態污染物之稀釋效率，並分析隧道內污染物之空間分佈特性。本研究同時亦進行隧道現場調查與空氣污染物採樣分析，採樣污染物包括CO、NOx、SO2及THC，並將模擬結果與實測值比對。建構之三維模擬模式將可提供隧道規劃設計及評估隧道內空氣品質之參考依據。

研究結果顯示，交通隧道CO及NOx之污染來源主要受到車輛尾氣排放所致，CO濃度受到機車及小客車排放之影響，而NOx則主要來自於大型車輛之排放。且隧道內NOx成分中主要以NO為主，約佔NOx之80% ~ 90%。THC則以NMHC佔大部分。

交通隧道內風扇作用及車行活塞效應可有效增加風速，加強隧道通風效果，對污染物濃度有明顯之稀釋效應。中正地下道內車輛行駛作用可增加風速約64% ~ 85%。風扇全部啟動及車輛行駛推力之加成作用，風速則增加185% ~ 328%。過港隧道內車行活塞作用可增加風速約13% ~ 20%。風扇全部啟動及車輛行駛推力雙重效應時，風速可增加120% ~ 182%。

車行活塞作用效應將可使中正地下道污染濃度降低14% ~ 32%；而全部風扇啟動及車行效應之加成效果將可稀釋47% ~ 66%污染濃度。對過港隧道而言，車行活塞作用可使隧道內污染濃度降低9% ~ 23%；而全部風扇及車行效應之重疊作用將可稀釋隧道內污染濃度達36% ~ 74%。

縱流式通風隧道內污染濃度將沿軸向方向逐漸累積升高。當風扇作用時，中正地下道軸向濃度累積約2.1 ~ 3倍。若風扇關閉時，則軸向污染濃度累積達3 ~ 4倍。過港隧道風扇作用時，軸向濃度累積約8 ~ 13倍。若風扇關閉時，則軸向污染濃度累積將可達16 ~ 25倍。當隧道內風扇關閉時，隧道內氣流速度可視為定值，軸向濃度呈現線性增加現象。隧道斷面濃度則呈現不均勻分佈，車道附近有高濃度區域，沿著隧道軸向朝下風方向，斷面污染濃度逐漸呈現分層現象，形成明顯的濃度梯度分佈。

ABSTRACT

Three-dimensional modeling on the aerodynamics of airflow and diffusion of air pollutants in a longitudinal-ventilated traffic tunnel was carried out. The model takes ventilation fans, traffic flow rate, speed, emission factor and piston effect of moving vehicles into consideration. Turbulent flow and dispersion of gaseous pollutants in road tunnels were solved numerically using the finite volume method. Traffic emissions were accordingly modeled as banded line sources along the tunnel floor. The effects of fan ventilation, roughness and piston effect of moving vehicles on the air flow and pollutant dilution are examined. Concentrations of gaseous pollutants CO, NOX, SO2 and THC (total hydrocarbons) at three axial locations in the tunnel, together with traffic flow rate, traffic speed and types of vehicle were measured. Case study was conducted on the Cross-Harbor Tunnel and the Chungcheng Tunnel in which on-site measurements of traffic flow were also conducted concurrently to provide traffic emission data to the tunnel environment for numerical simulation and comparisons.

The aim of this study was to understand the spatial variation of air pollutants generated by traffic emissions and evaluation of ventilation performance and piston effect of moving vehicles on dilution of air pollutants in these tunnels.

The results show that the major emission sources of CO are passenger cars and motorcycles, while major emission sources of NOx are trucks. Pollutants convect downstream with the wind generated either by longitudinal ventilation fans and/or moving vehicles, thus causing increasing pollutants concentrations with increasing downstream distance. The piston effect of moving vehicle alone can provide 64% ~ 85% increase of wind speed in Chungchen Tunnel and 13% ~ 20% in Cross-Harbor Tunnel. When all fans are on, showing 185% ~ 328% and 120% ~ 182% increases in Chungchen Tunnel and Cross-Harbor Tunnel, respectively.

The piston effect of moving vehicle alone can provide 14% ~ 32% dilution of air pollutants in the Chungcheng Tunnel. The piston effect of moving vehicles is compounded with ventilation fans, showing a 47% ~ 66% dilution effect when all fans are on. For the Cross-Harbor Tunnel, the piston effect of moving vehicle alone can provide 9% ~ 23% dilution of air pollutants and 36% ~ 74% dilution effect when all fans are on.

The results reveal that cross-sectional concentrations are non-uniformly distributed and that concentrations rise with downstream distance. When all fans were turned off, wind speed in tunnels would be considered as constant, and gaseous pollutants concentration agree with linearly alone the tunnel.

目 錄

謝 誌…………………………………………………………….I
摘 要……………………………………………………….……II
英文摘要…………………………………………………………IV
目 錄……………………………………………………………VI
表目錄…………………………………………………………….X
圖目錄…………………………………………………………...XIII
符號說明…………………………………………………..……XXII
第一章 前言…………………………………………………….1-1
1.1 研究緣起………………………………………………………...1-1
1.2 研究範圍與目的………………………………………………...1-2
1.3 研究內容及執行流程…………………………………………...1-3
第二章 文獻回顧……………………………………………….2-1
2.1 隧道通風系統…………………………………………………...2-1
2.1.1 自然通風………………………………………………....2-1
2.1.2 強制通風…………………………………………………2-2
2.1.2.1 縱流式通風系統………………………………...2-5
2.1.2.2 橫流式通風系統………………………………...2-9
2.1.2.3 半橫流式通風系統…………………………….2-11
2.1.3 隧道通風系統設計標準………………………………..2-13
2.2 隧道空氣品質特性…………………………………………….2-20
2.2.1隧道空氣污染物擴散及傳輸特性……………………...2-20
2.2.2隧道交通特性………………………….………………..2-22
2.3 機動車輛污染物排放特性……………………………….……2-24
2.4 隧道通風技術及污染物分佈………………………………….2-30
2.4.1 基本理論評估…………………………………………..2-30
2.4.2 實場量測分析…………………………………………..2-32
2.4.3 物理模型實驗…………………………………………..2-34
2.4.4 數值模式模擬…………………………………………..2-37
2.5 國內外隧道空氣污染狀況…………………………………….2-39
2.6 隧道數值模式………………………………………………….2-42
第三章 隧道三維空氣動力與擴散理論……………………….3-1
3.1 流場基本假設…………………………………………………...3-1
3.2 制御方程式……………………………………………………...3-1
3.3 紊流模式………………………………………………………...3-4
3.4 隧道內車輛污染物排放率推估………………………………...3-6
3.5 車行活塞效應及壁函數之模擬………………………………...3-7
3.6 邊界條件 ………………………………………………….…..3-12
第四章 數值原理與計算方法………………………………….4-1
4.1 數值計算概述…………………………………………………...4-1
4.2 數值計算程序…………………………………………………...4-2
4.3 數值方法解析…………………………………………………...4-7
4.3.1 離散化……………………………………………………4-9
4.3.1.1 擴散項………………………………………….4-10
4.3.1.2 對流項………………………………………….4-10
4.3.1.3 源項………………………………………….....4-12
4.3.2 數值計算方法…………………………………………..4-12
4.3.3 SIMPLE法壓力速度修正………………………………4-12
4.3.4 收斂準則………………………………………………..4-13
4.4 計算網格安排…………………………………………….……4-13
4.5 初始猜測值之輸入…………………………………………….4-21
4.6 計算收斂驗證…………………………………………………4-22
第五章 隧道資料調查與污染物採樣………………………….5-1
5.1 隧道幾何資料調查……………………………………………...5-1
5.1.1 中正地下道………………………………………………5-1
5.1.2 過港隧道…………………………………………………5-5
5.2 氣象資料調查…………………………………………………...5-9
5.3 交通資料調查…………………………………………………...5-9
5.3.1 交通量調查……………………………………………..5-12
5.3.2 行車速率調查…………………………………………..5-12
5.4 空氣品質調查………………………………………………….5-13
5.4.1 空氣污染物採樣………………………………………..5-13
5.4.2 污染物分析方法………………………………………..5-14
第六章 結果與討論…………………………………………….6-1
6.1 隧道交通量測結果……………………………………………...6-1
6.1.1 交通流量分佈……………………………………………6-1
6.1.2 車行速率分佈……………………………………………6-2
6.2 隧道空氣污染物調查結果……………………………………...6-2
6.2.1 隧道外大氣環境空氣品質………………………………6-2
6.2.2 隧道內空氣品質…………………………………………6-4
6.3 隧道內車輛污染物排放率推估………………………………...6-7
6.4 隧道內流場模擬結果………………………………………….6-10
6.4.1中正地下道內氣流分佈……………...…………………6-10
6.4.2 過港隧道內氣流分佈……………………………….….6-17
6.5 隧道內空氣污染物擴散分佈模擬結果……………………….6-23
6.5.1 風扇作用對隧道內污染物分佈之影響…….………….6-23
6.5.2 車行活塞效應對隧道內污染物分佈之影響…………..6-31
6.5.3 車行及風扇重疊作用對隧道內污染物
分佈之影響. ..............................................................…..6-34
6.5.4 隧道軸向污染濃度……………………………………..6-35
6.5.5 隧道橫斷面污染濃度…………………………………..6-37
6.5.6 車行速度對隧道內空氣品質之影響……………..……..6-38
6.6 模擬結果與實測值之比較………………………………….…..6-39
第七章 結論與建議……………………………………………7-1
7.1 結論…………………………………………………..………..….7-1
7.2 建議……………………………………………………..….….….7-5
參考文獻………………………………………………….………8-1
附錄A 中正地下道採樣資料……….…..…..………………....A-1
附錄B 過港隧道採樣資料……………...……………..……....B-1
附錄C 機動車輛污染物排放係數表…..………………..….....C-1
附錄D 中正地下道採樣儀器圖……………..………….……..D-1
附錄E 過港隧道採樣儀器圖…………..………………………E-1

參 考 文 獻
Atkinson, K.E., An Introduction to Numerical Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1978.
Baba , T.; Ohashi, H.; Nakamichi, F.; Inami, E.; Akita, I., Recent trends in ventilation systems of long vehicle tunnels in Japan, 5th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1985, 371-388.
Baba, T.; Hattori, Y.; Seki, T., Characteristics of Longitudinal ventilation System Using Normal Size Jet Fans; 3rd International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1979, 71-96.
Baba, T.; Ohashi, H.; Nakamichi, F.; Akashi, N., A new longitudinal ventilation system using electrostatic precipitator for long vehicular traffic tunnels, 3rd International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1979, 201-226.
Baik, J.J.; Kim, J.J., A Numerical Study of Flow and Pollutant Dispersion Characteristics in Urban Street Canyons; J. of Applied Meteorology, 1999, 38, 1576-1589.
Baker, C.J.; Hargreaves, D.M., Wind tunnel evaluation of a vehicle pollution dispersion model, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 2001, 89, 187-200.
Barbetta, C.; Bucciarelli, D., Ventilation system of city tunnel in Genoa, 4th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1982, 321-336.
Barrefors, G., Air Pollutants in Road Tunnels, the Science of the Total Environment, 1996, 189/190, 431-435.
Bellasio, R., Modelling Traffic Air Pollution in Road Tunnels, Atmospheric Environment, 1997, 31, 1539-1551.
Benyaria, S.; Arastoopour, H.; Knowiton, T., Simulation of Gas/Solid Flow Systems Using CFX, AEA Technology International Users Conference, 1997, 296-301.
Bishop, G.A.; McLaren, S.E.; Stedman, D.H.; Pierson, W.R.; Zweidinger, R.B.; Ray, W.D., Method Comparisons of Vehicle Emissions Measurements in the Fort McHenry and Tuscarora Mountain Tunnels, Atmospheric Environment, 1996, Vol. 30, No. 12, 2307-2316.
Bishop, G.A.; McLaren, S.E.; Stedman, D.H.; Pierson, W.R.; Zweidinger, R.B.; Ray, W.D., Method Comparisons of Vehicle Emissions Measurements in the Fort McHenry and Tuscarora Mountain Tunnels, Atmospheric Environment, 1996, Vol. 30, No. 12, 2307-2316.
Bring, A.; Malmstrom, T.G.; Boman, C.A., Simulation and Measurement of Road Tunnel Ventilation, Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 1997, 12, 417-424.
Brouse, B., Model Study of Pressure losses in Tunnel Ventilation Ducts, 7th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1991, 321-335.
Brousse, B., Aerodynamical disturbances generated by jet fans inside tunnels, 8th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1994, 33-68.
Casale, E.; Charvier, J.M.; Lemaire, G., Tunnel ventilation system modlling, 8th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1994, 69-82.
CFX – Manual Solver (4.2). AEA Technology, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom, 1997.
Chan, L.Y; Qin, Y.; Lee, S.C., CO concentration inside the cross harbor tunnel in Hong Kong, Environment International, 1996, 405-409.
Chang, T.Y.; Rudy, S.J., Road Tunnel Air Quality Models; Environ. Sci. Technol. 1990, 672-676.
Chang, T.Y.; Modzelewski, S.W.; Norbeck, J.M.; Pierson, W.R., Tunnel Air Quality and Vehicle Emissions, Atmospheric Environment, 1981, 15, 1011-1016.
Chang, Y. R.; Chen, K. S., Prediction of opposing turbulent line jets discharged laterally into a confined cross flow. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 1995, 38, 1693-1703.
Charlwood, R.G.; Huggett, J.R.; Salt, P.E., Tunnel ventilation systems for the British Columbia Railway, 4th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1982, 15-30.
Chen, C.J.; Jaw, S.Y., Fundatmentals of Turbulence Modeling, Taylor & Francis, 1998.
Chen, K.S.; Chung, C.Y.; Wang, S.W., Measurement and Three-Dimensional Modeling of Airflow and Pollutant Dispersion in an Undersea Traffic Tunnel, J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 2002, 52, 349-363.
Chen, T.Y.; Lee, Y.T.; Hsu, C.C., Investigations of Piston-Effect and Jet Fan-Effect in Model Vehicle Tunnels, J. of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamic, 1998, 73, 99-110.
Chow, W.K.; Leung, W.M., Application of field model on tunnel fire services design. 6th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1988, 154-169.
Chung, C.Y.; Chen, K.S.; Yuan, C.S.; Hung, C.H., Modeling of air pollutant dispersion in a longitudinal ventilated traffic tunnel, Journal of the Chinese Institute of Environmental Engineering, 2001, Vol. 11, No. 4, 237-244.
Conlee, C.J.; Kenline, P.A.; Cummins, R.L.; Konopinski, V.J., Motor Vehicle Exhaust at Three Selected Sites, Archs. Envir. Helth. 1967, 14, 429-446.
Costeris, N.P.; Sweetland, I.A., Longitudinal ventilation by injection, 8th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1994, 695-716.
Culverwell, D.R., The design of the ventilation system for the Hong Kong Cross-Harbour Tunnel, 1st International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1973, E3, 45-72.
Danziger, N.H., Research and analysis of subway rapid transit system aerodynamics and thermodynamics, 1st International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1973, G1, 1-20.
Danziger, N.H.; Kennedy, W.D., Semi-transverse ventilation analysis for the Ellzabeth River Tunnel, 3rd International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1979, 25-36.
Dayman, B., Small scale aerodynamic testing for highway tunnels, 4th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1982, 483-502.
Diaz, J.; Kramesberger, F., Safe and economic ventilation of a motorway tunnel, 5th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1985, 93-110.
Duffy, B.L.; Nelson, P.F., Non-methane Exhaust Composition in the Sydeny Harbour Tunnel: A Focus on Benzene and 1,3-Butadiene, Atmospheric Environment, 1996, Vol. 30, No.15, 2759-2768.
Egilsrud, P.E., Ventilation system for the I-95 Mall Tunnel, Washington, D.C., 1st International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1973, J3, 21-32.
El-Fadel, M.; Hashisho, Z., Vehicular Emissions and Air Quality Assessment in Roadway Tunnels: the Salim Slam Tunnel, Transportation Research, Part D5, 2000, 355-372.
Felli, M., A study of a longitudinal ventilation system for tunnels, 2nd International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1976, A3, 55-68.
Fox and Mcdonald, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 2th ed, Hohuwiley & Sons. Inc. 1973.
Funasaka, K.; Miyazaki, T.; Tsuruho, K.; Mizuno, T., Characteristics of particulates and gaseous pollutants in a highway tunnel, Environmental, Pollution, 1998, 171-176.
Gonzalez, J.A.; Danziger, N.H., Tunnel ventilation design for fire safety. 6th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1988, 371-382.
Grant, G.B.; Vardy, A.E.; Davies, P.A., Thermally stratified forced ventilation in tunnels. 6th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1988, 357-368.
Haerter, A.A., Trends in ventilation systems, 3rd International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1979, 1-12.
Haerter, A.A, Road tunnel air and the environment, 7th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1991, 415-433.
Haerter, A.A., Fresh air requirements for road tunnels, 1st International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1973, B1, 1-17.
Hammitt, A.G., The Aerodynamics of Vehicles Passing Through Tunnels, 1st International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1973, C2, 45-68.
Hampton, C.V.; Pierson, W.R.; Harvery, T.M.; Updegrove, W.S.; Marano, R.S., Hydrogen gases emitted from vehicles on the road 1.A. qualitative gas chromatography/mass spectrometry survey, Environ. Sci. Technol. Vol 16, 1982, 287-296.
Hare, C.T.; Baines, T.M., Characterization of Particulate and Gaseous Emissions from Two Diesel Automobiles as Functions of Fuel and Driving Cycle; 1979, SAE paper 790424.
Hayward, A.T.J.; McDonald, L.M., Ventilation tests on a model road tunnel, 1st International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1973, H3, 29-42.
Herzke, K., Ventilation system of the New Elbtunnel in Hamburg, 2nd international Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels contents, 1976, B2, 2-34.
Hiramatsu, Y.; Mitsuta, Y.; Honda, F., Natural ventilation of the mountain road tunnel, 1st International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1973, D1, 1-13.
Hsieh, C.C., Chang, K.H., Kao, Y.S., Estimating The Ozone Formation Potential of Volatile Aromatic Compounds In Vehicle Tunnels, Chemosphere, 1999, Vol. 39, No. 9, 1433-1444.
Kagawa, J., Health effects of air pollutants and their management. Atmospheric Environment, 1984, 18, 613-620.
Kawatani, A.; Mimura, Y.; Hashimoto, A.; Ishida, M.; Sndo, S., A field test of denitrication system for road tunnel exhaust, 8th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1994, 825-846.
Komenda, M.; Parusel, E.; Wedel, A.; Koppamnn, R., Measurements of bioorganic VOC emissions: sampling, analysis and calibration, Atmospheric environment, 2001, 35, 2069-2080.
Konstantinov, A.; Staroselsky, I.; Orszag, S.A.; Yakhot, V., Renormalization Group-Based Transport Modeling of Premixed Turbulent Combustion: I. Incompressible Deflagration Model, J. of Scientific Computing, 1998, 13, 229-252.
Lakehal, D.; Mestayer, P.G.; Edson, J.B.; Anquetin, S.; Sini, J.F., Eulero-Lagrangian Simulation of Raindrop Trajectories and Impact within the Urban Canopy, Atomspheric Environment, 1995, Vol. 29, No. 23, 3501-3517.
Launder, B.E.; Spalding, D. B., Numerical Computation of Turbulent Flows, Comput. Math. Appl. Mech. Engng. 1974, 3, 269-289.
Liou, T. M.; Chang, Y.; Hwang, D. W., Experimental and computational study of turbulent flows in a channel with two pairs of turbulence promoters in tandem. ASME J. Fluids Engng. 1990, 112, 302-310.
Lodge, J.P., Methods of Air Sampling and Analysis, 3rd ed., Lewis Pub, Inc., Chelsea, Michigan, 1989, 733-735.
Lonneman W.A.; Kopczynski, S.L.; Darley, P.E.; Sutterfield, F.D., Hydrocarbon composition of urban air pollution, Environ. Sci. Technol. 1974, Vol 8, 229-242.
Lonneman W.A.; Selia, R.L.; Meeks, S.A., Non-methane organic composition in the Lincoln tunnel, Environ. Sci. Technol. 1986, Vol 20, 790-802.
Lou, J.C.; Hwang, I.J, Application of linear programming to the study of particulate pollutant control for a coal-fired electrical power plant. Journal of lndustrial Pollution Control 10, 1991, 139-152.
Lowndes, J.F.L.; Fudger, G., Ventilation system for motorway tunnels, 3rd International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1979, 227-236.
Magome, M.; Kawamura ,T., Study on a new ventilation system to effectively eliminate fire smoke in a tunnel, 2nd international Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels contents, 1976, J3, 41-62.
Marsault, J.P.; Gabet, M.C., Pollution dispersion: in situ measurements at tunnel portals, 5th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1985, 427-444.
Martegani, D.A.; Pavesi, G., An Experimental study on the longitudinal ventilation system, 8th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1994, 3-16.
May, A.D., Traffic Flow Fundamentals, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1990.
Medwell, J.O.; Taylor, C.; Pope, C.W., Numerical analysis of the flow around the rear of a long vehicle in a tunnel, 4th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1982, 137-150.
Megaw, T.W.; Mott, Design of ventilation systems for road tunnels, 1st International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1973, A1, 1-20.
Mizuno, A.; Ohashi, H; Nakahori ,I.; Okubo, N., Emergency operation of ventilation for the Kan-Estu road tunnel, 5th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1985, 77-92.
Nakamura, S.; Kawakwmi, H.; Sekino, S.; Shimokawa, A.; Mizuno, A., Development of the ceiling type electrostatic precipitation system (second report), 1991, 757-770.
Nejedlý, Z.; Campbell, J.L.; Rogak, S.N.; Hoff, R.M.; Teesdale, W.J., Air quality work at Guelpph: GAViM and a traffic tunnel study, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, B150, 1999, 398-402.
Ohashi, H.; Koso, T., Longitudinal diffusion of exhaust pollutants in two-way automobile tunnels, 5th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1985, 409-426.
Patankar, S. V.; Basu, D. K.; Alpay, S. A., Predictions of the three-dimensional velocity field of a deflected turbulent jet, ASME J. Fluids Engng. 1977, 99, 493-504.
Patankar, S.V., Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow, Hemisphere Public Co.: New York, 1980.
PIARC Technical Committee Report on Road Tunnels, Report No.5, Permanent International Association of Road Congress , Brussel, 1987.
PIARC Technical Committee Report on Road Tunnels. Permanent International Association of Road Congress, Marrakesh, 1991.
Pierson, W. R.; Gorse, R. A.; Szkarlat, A.C., Brachaczek, W.W., Japar, S.M., Lee, F. S.C.; Haereter, A., Mutagencicity and chemical characteristic of carbonaceous particulate, Environ. Sci. Technol. 1983, Vol. 17, 31-44.
Pischinger, R.; Schweiger, H., Determining exhaust emission of motor vehicles in tunnels, 5th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1985, 389-408.
Pischinger, R.; Schweiger, H., Investigations of smoke emissions in road tunnels, 4th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1982, 187-196.
Pucher, K.; Sturm, P., Measurements of CO-concentration in the vicinity of tunnel portals and exhaust and exhaust air chimneys by model tests, 5th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1985, 461-470.
Pucher, K.; Pinter, R., The ventilation if the Tauern and the Katschberg Tunnels, 1st International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1973, F2, 25-36.
Pursall, B.R.; West, A., Induced ventilation in road tunnels a theoretical and practical analysis, 2nd international Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels contents, 1976, A2, 27-54.
Pursall, B.R.; West A. Induced Ventilation in Road Tunnels: A Comparison between Full-Scale and Model Studies, 3rd International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1979, 377-398.
Pursall, B.R., Health standards and monitoring in tunnel atmospheres in the United Kingdom, 3rd International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1979, 483-500.
Pursall, B.R.; Lowndes, J.F.L.; Anderson, U.K., ventilation system of the Second Dartford Tunnel, 4th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1982, 447-460.
Raf, D.F.; Bruynseraede, P.; Kretzschmar, J.G., Air pollution measurements in traffic tunnels, Environmental Health Perspectives, 1994, 102, 31-37.
Richarz, W.; Yazici, M., Aeroacoustics of inlet and outlet systems for axial flow fans, 8th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1994, 665-672.
Robert M.; Alan, W. G.; Dave, N. W.; Wayne, B.; Tom, D.; Donald, L. S., Real-World Measurements of Exhause and Evaporative Emissions in the Cassiar Tunnel Predicted by Chemical Mass Balance Modeling, Environ. Sci. Technol. 1996, 30, 3001-3009.
Robert, A.; Gorse, Jr., On-Road Emission Rates of Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxides, and Gaseous Hydrocarbons, Environ. Scl. Technol. 1984, 18, 500-507
Roberto, B., Modelling Traffic Air Pollution in Road Tunnels, Atmospheric Environment, 1997, Vol. 31, No. 10, 1539-1551.
Rogak, S.N.; Green, S.I.; Pott, U., Use of Tracer Gas for Direct Calibration of Emission-Factor Measurements in a Traffic Tunnel. Air & Waste Mange. Assoc. 1998, 48, 545-552.
Rogak, S.N.; Pott, U.; Dann, T.; Wang, D., Gaseous Emissions from Vehicles in a Traffic Tunnel in Vancouver, British Columbia, Air & Waste Mange. Assoc. 1998, 48, 604-615.
Rohne, E., The friction losses on walls caused by a row of four parallel jet flows. 6th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1988, 274-289.
Rohne, E.; Voith Gmbh J.M.; Germany F.R., The influence of axis distance of two parallel jet flows on the friction losses on walls, 5th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1985, 543-552.
Rotzer, H.; Riesing, J., Air flow measurements by a tracer method in road tunnels with longitudinal ventilation, 5th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1985, 241-258.
Sato, N.; Ohta Y.; Komatsu K., Discharge of exhaust pollutant from portal of one-way traffic automobile tunnel with exhaust shaft, 5th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, 1985, 445-460.
Schwartz J.; Morris R., Air Pollution and hospital admissions for cardiovascular disease in Detroit, Michigan, Am. J. Epidemiology, 1995, 142, 23-35.
Schwartz J., Air pollution and daily mortality: a review and meta analysis. Environmental Research, 1994, 64, 36-52.
Schwartz, J., Air pollution and daily mortality in Birmingham, Alabama, American Journal of Epidemiology, 1993, 137:1136-1147.
Shih T.H.; Zhu, J.; Lumley, J.H., A New Reynolds Stress Algebraic Equation Model, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 1995, 125, 287-302.
Shih, T.H.; Liou, W.W.; Shabbir, A.; Yang, Z.; Zhu, J., A New k-