none

Kiribati, a small and low lying island country located on the equator, is vulnerable to impact of Global Warming. In response, Kiribati’s Government continues and remains firm to fight the increase of pollution gases. Rather than just fighting using words, Kiribati seriously takes into consideration issues which promote the use of clean energy in all aspects. .This thesis emphasizes the use of large scale photovoltaic (PV) installation as a clean energy source that may help contribute in the total energy demand for this island. Here, a large photovoltaic generation system as a Distribution Generation (DG) to feed main utility network (i.e. PUB) on the island, assumed to be constructed in the National Main Stadium (NMS) at Betio Town as the DG Interconnection site, is analyzed. This PVGS has been investigated from two different perspectives: 1) Independent Power Producer (IPP) point of view, which is the design of the selling price of PV power generation and 2) Utility point of view, which is the design of saving costs incurred from PVGS contribution. PV power generation is simulated according to the hourly solar irradiation and temperature provided by the Weather Office in Kiribati. The cash flow of annual power generation, the operation and maintenance costs and the capital investment cost of the PVGS are then used to derive the payback time (PBT) and the internal rate of return (IRR) for the PVGS under different selling price of PV power generation. The voltage variation and the system losses of the distribution feeder, which serves the National Stadium, are also evaluated by executing the load flow analysis for the impact analysis of the PVGS. Results indicate that the reduction of voltage variation and system’s losses can be obtained with the PVGS installed to provide the dispersed generation for the local loads. However, the PVGS penetration is limited due to the violation of voltage variation introduced by the large intermittent PV power generation. The selling price of PV generation has to be designed according to the conditions of solar irradiation and temperature so that sufficient incentives can be provided.

ACKNOWLEDMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF TABLES ix
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS x
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Introduction to Republic of Kiribati and its real situation of energy consumption 1
1.1.1 Rise in production cost 5
1.1.2 Network losses 6
1.2. Introduction to Solar Energy and Photovoltaic Cell Investigation 9
1.3.Objectives of the Thesis 12
1.4. Content of the thesis 12
CHAPTER 2:LITERATURE REVIEW 13
2.1. Review of PV development and applications 13
2.2. Review of DG system 17
2.3. Load flow problem 19
2.3.1 Analytical Definition of the Power flow 19
2.3.2 Newton-Raphson method for solving power flow 22
2.3.3 Equations relating to power system load flow 24
CHAPTER 3: MATHEMATIC MODEL OF PV POWER SYSTEM 30
3.1. A review of mathematical models of solar irradiation 30
3.2. The mathematical models used in this thesis 35
CHAPTER 4: POWER SIMULATION ANALYSIS 43
4.1. The general procedure of the simulation process 43
4.2. Case study simulation 49
CHAPTER 5: FINANCIAL ANALYSIS SCHEME 71
5.1. Investment Assessment 72
5.1.1 Scenario 1: Independent Power Producer’s Point of View 72
5.1.1.1 Economic evaluation to determine what PVGS installed size will bring more incentive to IPP 77
5.1.2 Senario 2: Utility (PUB) Point of View 81
5.1.2.1 Estimated Fuel Cost saving (due to PV injection) Calculation 81
5.1.2.2 Estimated Power Loss saving (due to PV injection) Calculation 83
5.1.2.3 Economic evaluation if Utility (PUB) seeks project ownership 84
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 88
6.1. Conclusion 88
6.2. Contributions 89
6.3. Future Work 90
REFERENCES 91
APPENDICES 96

[1] The World Bank, Pacific Regional Energy Assessment (PREA), Volume 5: Kiribati Issues and Options in the Energy Sectors, 1992.
[2] K. Mala, A. Schlafer and T. Pryon, “Solar Photovoltaic(PV) on Atolls; Sustainable Development of Rural and Remote Communities in Kiribati”, Renewable and sustainable review, Elsevier, 2008
[3] G. Zieroth, PIEPSAP Project Report 13, National Consultant Kiribati, November 2004
[4] Exchange rate (logged on Feb 2011) [Online]. Available: http://www.x-rates.com/.
[5] A. Liebenthal, H.Wade and M. Charleson, Douglas Macdonald and Chuck Filiag, “Pacific Regional Energy Assessment: Kiribati Issues and Options in the Energy Sector”, volume 5, Feb 1991.
[6] Lin, C.H; Hsieh, W.L; Chen, C.S; Ku, T.T, C.T; “Financial Analysis of A Large Scale Photovoltaic System and Its Impact on Distribution Feeders”, Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting (IAS), October 2010.
[7] M. Thirugnanasambandam, S. Iniyan and R. Goic, “A Review of Solar Thermal Technologies”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14 (2010) 312–322.
[8] F. Dincer, “The Analysis on Photovoltaic Electricity Generation Status, Potential and Policies of the Leading Countries in Solar Energy”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 713–720.
[9] M. Benghanem and A. Mellit, “Radial Basis Function Network-based Prediction of Global Solar Radiation Data: Application for Sizing of a Stand-alone Photovoltaic System at Al-Madinah, Saudi Arabia”, Energy 35 (2010) 3751-3762.
[10] A.F. Sherwani, J.A. Usmani and Varun, “Life Cycle Assessment of Solar PV based Electricity Generation Systems: A review”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14 (2010) 540–544.
[11] MATPOWER. Available: http://www.pserc.cornell.edu/matpower/
[12] B. Parida, S. Iniyan and Ranko Goic, “A Review of Solar Photovoltaic Technologies”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 1625–1636.
[13] G.N. Tiwari, R.K. Mishra and S.C. Solanki, “Photovoltaic Modules and their Applications: A Review on Thermal Modeling”, Applied Energy 88 (2011) 2287–2304.
[14] N. Jenkins, R. Allan, P. Crossley, D. Kirschen and G. Strbac, ., “Embedded Generation” ,United Kingdom,2008
[15] M. Sedighi, A. Dankoob, A. Lgderi and S. M. Abeli, “Sitting and Sizing of DG in Distribution Network to Improve of Several Parameters by PSO Algorithm”, International conference on mechanical and electrical technology ICMET,2010.
[16] A. Medina, J.C Hernandez and F. Jurade, senior IEEE, “Optimal Placement and sizing procedure for PV system on Radial distribution system”, International Conference on Power system technology, 2006.
[17] B. Chabot, "From Cost to Prices: Economic Analysis of Photovoltaic Energy and Services, " Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, 6, 55, 1998.
[18] M. Kleinpeter, Energy Planning and Policy. Wiley: Wiltshire, 1995; 107.
[19] G. Nofuentes. J. Armilera v F. 1. MuBoz. "Tools for the Profitability - Analysis of Grid-Connected Photovoltaics," Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Appliclations, 10,555 (2002).
[20] D.J. Swider, L. Beurskens, S. Davidson, J. Twidell, J. Pyrko, W. Pruggler, H. Auer, K. Vertin, and R. Skema, “Conditions and Costs for Renewable Electricity Grid Connection: Examples in Europe,” Renewable Energy, vol. 33, pp. 1832–1842, 2008.
[21] A. Roque, N. Fontes, J. Maia, C. Casimiro and D.M. Sousa, “Economic Aspects of a Domestic Micro-generation System,“ 2009 6th International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM 2009), Leuven, Belgium, May 2009
[22] D. Talavera, G. Nofuentes, J. Aguilera and M. Fuentes, “Tables for the Estimation of the Internal Rate of Return of photovoltaic grid-connected systems,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 11, pp. 447–466, 2007.
[23] G. Nofuentes, J. Aguilera, C. Rus and R.L. Santiago, “A Short Assessment on the Profitability of PV Grid-Connected Systems using Classical Investment Project Analysis,” Third world conference photovoltaic energy conversion, Osaka, Japan, pp. 2632–2635, May 2003.
[24] J. Bernal-Agustin and R. Dufo-Lopez, “Economic and Environmental Analysis of Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems in Spain”, Renewable Energy, 31, pp. 1107–1128, 2006.
[25] DelSolar Company Ltd., Solar Cell Specification-D6p, [Online].Available: http://www.delsolarpv.com/product/document/D6P.pdf.
[26] J.Arrillaga and C.P.Arnold, “Computer Modelling of Electrical Power Systems”, Canterbury New Zealand, pp 64-72, 1994.
[27] K. Bakirci, “Models of Solar Radiation with Hours of Bright Sunshine: A review”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13 (2009) 2580–2588.
[28] M. G. Villalve, J. R. Gazoli and E. R. Filho, “Comprehensive Approach to Modelling and Simulation of Photovoltaic Arrays”, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol 24, No.5, May 2009.
[29] R. Yan and T. K. Saha, “Power Ramp Control for Grid Connected Photovoltaic System’, IPEC conference proceeding, 2010.
[30] S.Conti, A.Greco, N.Messina and S. Raiti , “Local Voltage Regulation in LV Distribution Network with PV Distributed Generation”, International symposium on power electronics, speedam, 2006.
[31] S.Morozomi, S.Kikuchi, Y.chiba, J. Kishida, S.Uesuka and Y.Arashiro, “Distribution Technology Development and Demonstration Project in Japan”, IEEE conference, 2008.
[32] S. Morozomi, N. Inoue, Y. Arashiro,Y.Chiba and T.Iwasaki, “ Strategies and Status of Grid Connection Technology Development in NEDO”, IEEE conference 2008.
[33] A. G Marinopoulos, A. S Bouhouras, G. K. Peltekis, A. K Makrygiannis and D. P Labridis, “PV Systems Penetration and Allocation to an Urban Distribution Network: A Power Loss Reduction Approach” IEEE Bucharest Power Tech Conference, June28th – July 2nd.
[34] PSAF ( Power system Analysis Framework)[Online].Available: http://www.ppitd.com/
[35] C.L. Masters, “Voltage Rise the Big Issue when Connecting Embedded Generation to Long 11kV Overhead Lines” Power engineering journal, February 2002.
[36] T. J Overbye, X. Cheng and Y. Sun, “ A Comparison of the AC and DC Power Flow models for LMP calculation”, 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Science, 2004
[37] A.Klos and A.Kerner, “The Non Uniqueness of the Load Flow Solution,” Proc. PSCC-5, 3.1-8, Cambridge, UK, 1975.
[38] C.L.DeMarco and T.J.Overbye,” Low Voltage Power Flow Solutions and their Role in Exist Time Based Security Measures for Voltage Collapse,” Proc.27 Conf. Decision & Control, Austim, TX, Dec.1988
[39] J.S.Thorp and S.A.Naqavi, “Load flow fractals,” Proc 28 Conf. Decision and Control, Tampa, FL, December 1989.
[40] J.S Thorp and S A Naqavi “Load Flow Factuals Draw Clues to Erratic Behaviour’, IEEE Computer Applications in Power, pp.59-62, Jan.1997.