任何一個組織或機構，無論其為營利或非營利組織，均希望能提高本身的效率，改善生產技術，進而達到提高生產力的目標，以期在當前競爭激烈的環境中生存。效率的衡量是提高生產力的基礎，效率與生產力衡量的結果可以幫助決策者瞭解組織對於資源的使用是否達到效率，生產技術是否達到進步與創新的目標。因此，近年來政府與民間機構對於效率及生產力之變動成因，以及如何衡量組織效率及生產力均甚為重視，而學術界更是不斷地研究發展提出各種效率與生產力分析模式，並應用到實際個案分析中，俾利提供管理決策者效率與生產力改進的參考依據，效率與生產力分析儼然已躍居當今產學研究的主流。
本研究以臺灣中分類製造業的工商普查資料進行實證分析，採用二階段方法來探討製造業動態聚集外部效果。第一階段先透過動態網絡資料包絡分析與麥氏生產力指數，計算出各縣市製造業的靜態效率與動態效率；第二階段則應用Tobit迴歸分析來驗證製造業地理集中對生產效率之影響效果，並應用二階段最小平方法(2SLS)來驗證製造業動態聚集外部效果。依據實證分析結果，研提具體可行的政策方案與管理策略建議。
臺灣製造業產業結構在近二十年來產生重大轉變，民生工業、化學工業大幅衰退，資訊電子業、金屬機械業則快速成長，在空間分布上，有明顯往北部區域聚集的趨勢。靜態效率部分，勞力密集型製造業之規模報酬多呈現遞減趨勢，知識密集型製造業則多呈現遞增趨勢，而東部區域製造業之規模效率偏低，導致其生產效率明顯低於北部、中部，南部區域製造業。動態效率部分，各製造業近二十年來的總要素生產力多呈現成長趨勢，亦達到技術變革的創新效果，惟技術效率卻均呈現衰退趨勢，各縣市製造業的生產效率差距有逐年擴大的現象。
本研究發現，影響製造業生產效率差異的最主要因素是內部規模經濟，地方化經濟與都市化經濟等靜態聚集經濟外部效果逐漸降低，區位對生產效率的影響並不顯著。而在製造業動態聚集外部效果部分，本研究發現，臺灣製造業普遍存在MAR專業化及Porter地方競爭動態外部效果，Jacobs多樣化動態外部經濟則並不顯著。人力資源外部效果則具有歧異性，大學以上教育人數多呈現正向影響效果，但員工薪資卻多呈現負向影響效果，此項實證分析結果似乎隱示低工資有利於製造業的經濟成長，但吾人不應擴大解釋臺灣製造業為血汗工廠，這種現象可能係因高薪資帶來高租金、高土地成本、高勞動成本，因而抵銷掉聚集經濟的利益，方為較合理的解讀。此外，臺灣與中國大陸今年六月二十九日於重慶簽定兩岸經濟合作協議(ECFA)，對臺灣製造業勢必造成衝擊與影響，此為未來產業經濟研究的重要議題，值得進一步研究與探討。

Any one organization or agency, whether for-profit or non-profit organizations that are seeking to enhance their efficiency, improve production technology, thereby achieving the goal of improving productivity, with a view to the current competitive environment. Efficiency measurement is very important, it can help decision makers understand whether the organization achieve technology progress and innovation objectives. In recent years, the government and civil organizations devote themselves to measure the change of organizational efficiency and productivity. Academia constantly research and develop various models of efficiency and productivity analysis, and application to actual cases analysis. Efficiency and productivity analysis has leapt to the mainstream of production economic studies.
This empirical study adopts the census data of the classification of the Chamber of Commerce and industry of manufacturing in Taiwan, using two-stage approach to explore dynamic agglomeration externalities of 2-digit manufacturing. In the first stage, we apply dynamic network data envelopment analysis and Malmquist productivity index to calculate static efficiency and dynamic efficiency of 2-digit manufacturing. In the second stage, we apply Tobit regression analysis to verify a manufacturing geographical concentration effects on productive efficiency. We also adopt two-stage least squares methods (2SLS) to validate dynamic agglomeration externalities effects of manufacturing. Based on the results of this empical study, we propose some specific practical policy alternatives and management strategies.
In the last 20 years, the strctures of Taiwan manufacturing industries have significant changes, the livelihood industry and of the sharp decline in industry, the chemical industry, electronics industry, metal machinery industry is growing fast. There is an obvous agglomeration tendency toward northern Taiwan region. In static efficiency, labour-intensive manufacturing industries tend to be diminishing return to scale rendering, while knowledge-intensive industries are rendering the increasing trend. The scale efficiency of eastern region manufacturing is very low, resulting in their productive efficiency significantly lower than the northern, central, southern regional manufacturing. In dynamic efficiency, the total factor productivity (TFP) of Taiwan manufacturing industries are rendering the growth trend, achieving the goal of innovation effect. However, the technical efficiency of manufacturing are rendering decline trend.
This study found that the most important impact factor on production efficiency is the internal economies of scale. Localization economies, urbanization economies, and other static agglomeration economies external effect gradually reduce. Moreover, this study also found that Taiwan manufacturing industries have notable MAR professional dynamic external economics and notable Porter regional competitive dynamic external economic effect. Besides, Taiwan manufacturing industries has noticeable human resource dynamic external economics, but we also found low wages is beneficial to regional economic growth. We should not expand to explain Taiwan manufacturing-sweatshops. This phenomenon may be caused by high salaries, high rents, high land costs and high labor costs, these factors offset the interest of agglomeration economies. Finally, Taiwan and mainland China signed a cross-strait economic cooperation framework agreement (ECFA) in Chongqing on 29 June 2010. Taiwan manufacturing inevitably be impacted and influenced by ECFA. This is an important topic worthy of further study and discussion in the future.

第1章 緒論 1
1.1 研究背景與動機 1
1.1.1 產業效率與生產力衡量的重要性 1
1.1.2 產業聚集對都市經濟發展之影響 3
1.1.3 產業空間分佈與變遷及其影響 5
1.2 研究目的與問題 7
1.3 研究範圍 9
1.3.1 空間分析單元 9
1.3.2 時間分析範圍 9
1.3.3 產業分析範圍 9
1.4 研究內容與流程 10
第2章 文獻回顧 13
2.1 產業聚集外部效果相關理論與實證探討 13
2.1.1 產業聚集經濟理論 14
2.1.2 動態聚集外部性之理論 22
2.1.3 動態聚集外部性之實證案例 25
2.1.4 聚集經濟之衡量指標 30
2.1.5 小結 33
2.2 產業空間集中與生產效率之相關性 34
2.2.1 產業空間集中與生產效率相關性之實證研究 34
2.2.2 產業地理集中衡量指標 36
2.2.3 小結 39
2.3 產業效率與生產力量測 39
2.3.1 效率與生產力之理論與衡量方法 39
2.3.2 生產力變動之量測方法 45
2.3.3 小結 47
2.4 靜態、比較靜態及動態資料包絡分析模式 47
2.4.1 靜態DEA模式 48
2.4.2 比較靜態DEA模式 50
2.4.3 動態DEA模式 52
2.4.4 小結 55
第3章 台灣製造業結構及空間之發展與變遷 57
3.1 本研究所界定之製造業範圍 57
3.1.1 製造業之定義與特性 57
3.1.2 台灣目前採用之製造業分類方式 64
3.1.3 本研究採用之製造業分類方式與定義 67
3.2 台灣製造業之產業結構與空間變遷 70
3.2.1 台灣製造業之產業結構變遷 70
3.2.2 台灣製造業之空間分佈與變遷 75
3.2.3 台灣製造業之空間發展型態與變遷 79
3.3 製造業創新產出與各縣市人力資源分析 90
3.3.1 台灣地區製造業創新產出分析 90
3.3.2 台灣地區各縣市人力資源分析 96
第4章 製造業聚集與靜態、動態效率關係之模式建構 101
4.1 實證模式建構 101
4.1.1 製造業靜態效率之衡量模式 101
4.1.2 製造業動態效率之衡量模式 107
4.1.3 製造業動態聚集外部效果之實證模式 109
4.1.4 製造業空間集中對生產效率的影響效果之實證模式 115
4.2 研究方法說明 119
第5章 實證結果分析與政策管理意涵 123
5.1 製造業靜態效率分析 123
5.1.1 民生工業靜態效率分析 123
5.1.2 化學工業靜態效率分析 129
5.1.3 資訊電子業靜態效率分析 136
5.1.4 金屬機械業靜態效率分析 139
5.2製造業動態效率分析 142
5.2.1 民生工業動態效率分析 143
5.2.2 化學工業動態效率分析 148
5.2.3 資訊電子業動態效率分析 154
5.2.4 金屬機械業動態效率分析 155
5.3製造業地理集中對生產效率之影響效果 159
5.3.1 民生工業地理集中對生產效率之影響效果 159
5.3.2 化學工業地理集中對生產效率之影響效果 161
5.3.3 資訊電子業地理集中對生產效率之影響效果 164
5.3.4 金屬機械業地理集中對生產效率之影響效果 165
5.4 製造業動態聚集經濟影響效果分析 167
5.4.1 民生工業動態聚集經濟影響效果分析 168
5.4.2 化學工業動態聚集經濟影響效果分析 170
5.4.3 資訊電子業動態聚集經濟影響效果分析 173
5.4.4 金屬機械業動態聚集經濟影響效果分析 175
第6章 結論與建議 179
6.1 結論 179
6.2 建議 183
6.3 研究限制與後續研究建議 185
參考文獻 189
1.中文部分 189
2.英文部分 191
附錄1 各縣市製造業靜態效率分析表 201
附錄2 各縣市製造業動態效率分析表 223

1.中文部分
丁力清 (1993)。台灣地區製造業聚集經濟型態之研究，國立政治大學地政研究所碩士論文。
王志文 (1997)。臺灣地區都市聚集經濟之研究，臺灣經濟，第247期，頁19-33。
石齊平、郭照榮 (1987)。當代計量經濟學，台北：三民書局。
江珮玉、劉小蘭 (2000)。台灣都市規模與產業結構變遷之探討，第一屆地政學系研討會論文集，國立政治大學地政學系。
吳濟華、何柏正 (2008)。組織效率與生產力評估-資料包絡分析法，台北：前程文化。
吳濟華、何柏正譯 (2009)。效率與生產力分析入門，台北：前程文化。
吳濟華、何柏正 (2009)。政府效能與經濟發展，研習論壇月刊，第102期，頁1-11。
李文福 (1991)。台灣製造業總要素生產力、技術進步與技術效率，經濟建設委員會經濟叢刊，頁122。
何祖睿 (2002)。台灣地區製造業空間聚集之研究，國立政治大學地政研究所碩士論文。
邱程瑋 (2002)。以產業群聚觀點探討台南科學園區與地方產業關聯之研究，國立成功大學都市計劃研究所碩士論文。
邱皓政 (2002)。量化研究與統計分析，台北：五南圖書出版公司。
金家禾 (2002)。知識經濟社會與地域發展機會，都市與計劃，第29卷第1期，頁1-20。
林盛輝 (2000)。產業與都市成長關係之研究，國立政治大學地政研究所碩士論文。
林育諄 (2001)。台灣都市生產者服務業之區位決定因素，國立臺北大學都市計劃研究所碩士論文。
林瑋浩 (2004)。臺灣都市產業總要素生產力之研究-空間差異、決定因子及外部動態，國立臺北大學都市計劃研究所碩士論文。
周諺鴻 (1999)。以投入產出分析論台南科學園區設置對於區域經濟影響之研究，國立成功大學都市計劃研究所碩士論文。
姜樹翰 (1996)。都市聚集經濟之研究：以台灣製造業為例，國立政治大學經濟研究所碩士論文。
姜樹翰、黃仁德 (2007)。台灣製造業都市聚集經濟之研究，台灣土地研究，第10卷第10期，頁127-149。
徐旻穗 (1995)。聚集經濟與都市發展關係之檢證-台灣地區之實證研究，國立成功大學都市計劃研究所碩士論文。
陳祈潔 (2007)。台灣都市製造業區位選擇決定因素，國立臺北大學都市計劃研究所碩士論文。
陳協勝 (2004)。科技產業聚集與創新關係之研究，國立中山大學公共事務管理研究所博士論文。
陳記章 (1999)。產業專業聚集化與地方都市成長之相關研究，國立中山大學公共事務管理研究所碩士論文。
許嘉棟 (1983）。公營事業與民營企業經濟效率的計量分析：成本函數之應用，經濟論文，第11卷第1期，頁183-208。
曾世杰 (1993)。台北都會區製造業市區與外圍地區專業分工程度之研究，國立中興大學都市計劃研究所碩士論文。
曾姿菁 (2002)。台灣製造業空間成長與結構變遷之研究，國立台北大學都市計劃研究所碩士論文。
楊重信 (2001)。台灣都市製造業動態外部之實證，2001年中華民國區域科學學會研討會論文集。
楊重信、林育諄 (2003)。台灣都市生產者服務業動態外部之實證，都市與計劃，第30卷第2期，頁91-107。
楊政龍、金家禾(2002)，知識設施空間分佈對臺灣製造業創新成效之影響，臺灣土地研究，第4期，頁101-123。
張剛維 (1990)。台灣都會區製造業成長與結構變遷之研究，國立中興大學都市計劃研究所碩士論文。
劉錚錚 (1974)。都市經濟學選論，台北市。
邊泰明 (1993)。台灣地區製造業都市化經濟與地方化經濟分析，政治大學學報，第66卷，頁233-248。
 
2.英文部分
Abdel-Rahman, H., and Fujita, M. (1990). Product Variety, Marshallian Externalities, and City Sizes. Journal of Regional Science, 30, 165-183.
Acemoglu, D. (1999). Changes in Unemployment and Wage Inequality: An Alternative Theory and Some Evidence. American Economic Review, 89, 1259-1278.
Anderson, G. (1994). Industry Clustering for Economic Development. Economic Development Review, 12 (2),26-33.
Audretsch, D. B., & Feldman, M. P. (1996). R&D Spillovers and The Geography of Innovation and Production. The American Economic Review, 86 (3), 630-640.
Arrow, K. J. (1962). Economic Welfare and the Allocation of Resources for Invention. In R. N. Richard (ed.), The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity: Economic and Social Factors, National Bureau of Economic Research, Conference Series, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 609-625.
Balk, B. M. (2001). Scale Efficiency and Productivity Change. Journal of Productivity Analysis, 15, 159-183.
Banker, R. D., Charnes, A., and Cooper, W. W. (1984). Some Models for Estimating Technical and Scale Inefficiencies in Data Envelopment Analysis. Management Science, 30, 1078-1092.
Bannister, G., & Stolp, C. (1995). Regional Concentration and Efficiency in Mexican
Manufacturing. European Journal of Operations Research, 80, 672-691.
Baptista, R. (2001). Geographical Clusters and Innovation Diffusion. Technological
Forecasting and Social Change, 66 (1), 31-46.
Baumol, W. J. (1967). Macroeconomics of unbalanced growth: the anatomy of urban crisis. American Economic Review, 57 (3), 415-426.
Beeson, P. E. (1987). Total Factor Productivity Growth and Agglomeration Economies in Manufacturing, 1959-73. Journal of Regional Science, 27 (2), 183-199.
Beeson, P. E. (1992). Source of the Decline of Manufacturing in Large Metropolitan Areas. Journal of Urban Economics, 40 (1), 78-84.
Beeson, P., & Husted, S. (1989). Patterns and Determinants of Productive Efficiency in State Manufacturing. Journal of Regional Science, 29 (1), 15-28.
Berndt, E. R., & Wood, D. O. (1975). Technology, Prices, and the Derived Demand for Energy. Review of Economics and Statistic, 57, 259-268.
Blien, U., Suedekum, J., and Wolf, K. (2006). Local Employment Growth in West Germany: A Dynamic Panel Approach. Labour Economic Review, 13, 445-458.
Capello, R. (2002). Entrepreneurship and Spatial Externalities: Theory and Measurement. The Annals of Regional Science, 36, 387-402.
Carlino, G. A. (1985). Declining City Productivity and the Growth of Rural Regions:
A Test of Alternative Explanations. Journal of Urban Economics, 18, 11-27.
Caves, D. W., Christensen, L. R., and Diewert, W. E. (1982). Multilateral Comparison of Output, Input and Productivity Using Superlative Index Numbers. Economic Journal, 92, 73-86.
Ciccone, A., & Hall, R. (1996). Productivity and density of economic activity. American Economic Review, 86, 54-70.
Cingino, F., & Schivardi, F. (2004), Structura producttiva locale e crescita. Un’analisi basata sulla produttività in Italia. In Banca d’Italia (ed.), Economie locali, modelli di agglomerazione e aperture internazionale, 133-161.
Charnes, A., Cooper, W. W., and Rhodes, E. (1978). Measuring the Efficiency of Decision Making Units. European Journal of Operational Research, 2, 429-444.
Christaller, W. (1966). Central Places in Southern Germany, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Halls.
Combes, P. P. (2000). Economic Structure and Local Growth: France 1984-1993. Journal of Urban Economics, 47, 329-355.
David, P. A., & Rosenbloom, J. L. (1990). Marshallian Factor Market Externalities and The Dynamics of Industrial Localisation. Journal of Urban Economics, 28, 349-370.
Debreu, G. (1951). The Coefficient of Resource Utilisation. Econometrica, 19, 273-292.
Delucio, J. J., Hence, J. A., and Goicolea, A. (1996). Externalities and Industrial Growth: Spain 1978-1992. Documento de trabajo 96-14, FEDEA and Universidad Complutense of Madrid.
Delucio, J. J., Hence, J. A., and Goicolea, A. (2002). The Effects of Externalities on Productivity Growth in Spanish Industry. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 29, 241-258.
Diewert, W. E. (1992). Fisher Ideal Output, Input and Productivity Indexes Revisited. Journal of Productivity Analysis, 3, 211-248
Dinc, M., & Haynes, K. E. (1999). Sources of Regional Inefficiency: An Integrated Shift-share, Data Envelopment Analysis and Input-output Approach. Annals of Regional Science, 48, 469-489.
Dixit, A., & Stiglitz, J. (1977). Monopolistic Competition and Optimum Product Diversity. American Economic Review, 67 (3), 297-308.
Dogan, E. (2001). External Scale Economies in Turkish Manufacturing Industries. International Review of Applied Economics, 15, 429-446.
Drennan, M. P. (1997). The Performance of Metropolitan Area Industries. Economic Policy Review, 17 (1), 49-60.
Ellison, G, & Glaeser, E. L. (1994). Geographic Concentration in U.S. Manufacturing Industries: A Dartboard Approach. Working Paper No.4840. Cambridge, Mass.: NMER.
Ellison, G., & Glaeser, E. L. (1997). Geographic Concentration in U.S. Manufacturing Industries: A Dartboard Approach. Journal of Political Economy, 105, 889-927.
Farrell, M. J. (1957). The Measurement of Productivity Efficiency. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A, 120 (3), 253-281.
Färe, R., Grosskopf, S., and Lovell, C. A. K. (1985). The Measurement of Efficiency of　Production. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston.
Färe, R., Grosskopf, S., Norris, M., and Zhang, Z. (1994). Productivity Growth, Technical Progress and Efficiency Changes in Industrialized Countries. American Economic Review, 84, 66-83.
Färe, R. S., Grosskopf, S., and Whittaker, G. (2005). Network DEA. Discussing Paper: Chapter 9.
Färe, R., & Grosskopf, S. (1997). Efficiency and Productivity in Rich and Poor Countries. In B. S. Jensen and K. Wong, (eds.), Dynamics, Economic Growth, and International Trade, University in International Economics, Ann Arbor, 243-263.
Feser, E. J. (1998). A Flexible Test for Agglomeration Economies in Two US Manufacturing Industries. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 31, 1-19.
Fujita, M. (1989). Urban Economic Theory. Land Use and City Size. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Fujita, M., & Thisse, J. F. (1996). Economics of Agglomeration. Journal of the Japanese and International Economics, 10, 339-378.
Fujita, M., Krugman, P., and Venables, A. (1999). The Spatial Economy, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Gaspar, J., & Glaeser, E. (1998). Information Technology and the Future of Cities, Journal of Urban Economics, 43, 136-156.
Gopinath, M., Pick, D., and Li, Y. (2004). An Empirical Analysis of Productivity Growth and Industrial Concentration in US Manufacturing. Applied Economics, 36, 1-17.
Greenhut, J., & Greenhut, M. L. (1975). Spatial Price Discrimination, Competition and Locational Effects. Economica, 42, 401-419.
Hall, P. (1999). The Future of Cities. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 23 (3), 173-185.
Hansen, N. (1990). Impacts of Small and Intermediate-Sized Cities on Population Distribution: Issues and Responses. Regional Development Dialogue, 11, 60-76.
Henderson, J. V. (1986). The Efficient of Resource Usage and City Size. Journal of Urban Economics, 19, 47-70.
Henderson, J. V., & Kuncoro, A. (1996). Industrial Centralization in Indonesia. The World Bank Economic Review, 10 (3), 513-540.
Henderson, J. V. (1997). Externalities and Industrial Development. Journal of Urban Economics, 22, 449-470.
Henderson, J. V. (2003). Marshall’s scale economies. Journal of Urban Economics, 27, 583-612.
Henderson, J. V., Kuncoro, A., and Turner, M. (1995). Industrial Development of Cities. Journal of Political Economy, 103, 1067-1090.
Helsley, R. W., & Strange, W. C. (1990). Matching and Agglomeration Economics in a System of Cities. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 20 (2), 189-212.
Hicks, J. R. (1961). Measurement of Capital in Relation to the Measurement of Other　Economic Aggregates. In F.A. Lutz and D.C. Hague (eds.), The Theory of Capital,　Macmillan, London.
Hirschman, A. (1958). The Strategy of Economic Development. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press.
Hoover, E. M. (1937). Location Theory and Shoe and Leather Industries. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Hoover, E. (1948). The Location of Economic Activity. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Hotelling, H. (1929). Stability in Competition. Economic Journal, 39, 41-57.
Hudson, E. A., & Jorgenson, D. W. (1974). U. S. Energy Policy and Economic Growth, 1975-2000. Bell Journal of Economics, 5, 461-514.
Hulten, C., & Schwab, R. (1984). Regional Productivity Growth in U.S. Manufacturing: 1951-78. American Economic Review, 74, 152-162.
Isard, W. (1956). Location and Space-Economy. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Jacobs, J. (1969). The Economy of Cities. NY: Random House.
Jaenicke, E. C. (2000). Testing for Intermediate Outputs in Dynamic DEA Models: Accounting for Soil Capital in Rotational Crop Production and Productivity Measures. Journal of Productivity Analysis, 14 (3), 247-266.
Jorgenson, D., Gallop, F., and Fraumeni, B. (1987). Productivity and U.S. Economic Growth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Kim, S. J. (1997). Productivity of Cities. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Koopmans, T. C. (1951). An Analysis of Production as an Efficient Combination of Activities. In T. C. Koopmans (ed.), Activity Analysis of Production and Allocation. Cowles Commission for Research in Economics, Monograph no. 13, Wiley, New York.
Kuchiki (2005). Theory of A Flowchart Approach to Industrial Cluster Policy, Discussion Paper Series, Institute of Developing Economies-JETRO, No.36.
Krugman, P. (1991). Geography and Trade. MIT Press.
Krugman, P. (1992). Geograflay Comercio, Antoni Bosh Editor, Barcelona.
Krugman, P. (1993). First Nature, Second Nature, and Metropolitan Location, Journal of Regional Science, 33 (2),129-144.
Krugman, P. (1995). Innovation and Agglomeration: Two Parables Suggested by City-Size Distributions. Japan and the World Economy, 7 (4), 371-390.
Krugman, P., & Livas, E. R. (1992). Trade Policy and the Third World Metropolis, NBER, Working Paper, No. 4238, Cambridge, Mass. December.
Lee, Y. J., & Zang, H. (1998). Urbanisation and Regional Productivity in Korean Manufacturing. Urban Studies, 35, 2085-2099.
Lo, F. C., & Salih, K. (1978). Growth Poles and Regional Policy in Open Dualistic Economies: Western Theory and Asian Reality. In F. C. Lo and K. Salih (eds.), Growth Pole Strategy and Regional Development Policy: Asia Experience and Alternative Approaches. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Looney, R., & Frederiksen, P. (1981). The Regional Impact of Infrastructure Investment in Mexico, Regional Studies, 15 (4), 285-296.
Lösch, A. (1954). The Economics of Location. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Lucas, R. E. (1988). In the Mechanics of Economic Development. Journal of Monetary Economics, 22, 3-42.
Luger, M. (2001). The Use of Cluster Analysis, in High Tech Industrial Park Planning, Symposium on Industrial Park Planning and Development, 8 (2), 52-73.
Malmquist, S. (1953). Index Numbers and Indifference Surfaces. Trabajos de Estatistica, l4, 209-242.
Mano, Y., & Otsuka, K. (2000). Agglomeration Economies and Geographical Concentration of Industries: A Case Study of Manufacturing Sectors in Postwar Japan. Journal of the Japanese and International Economies, 14, 189-203.
Marcus, M. (1965). Agglomeration Economies: A Suggested Approach. Land Economics, 41, 279-284.
Marshall, A. (1890). Principles of Economics: An Introductory Volume, New York: Free Press.
Marshall, A. (1920). Principle of Economics. London: Macmillan.
Maurel, F. (1996). Evolution locales de l’industrie 1982-1992 et convergence règionale: quelques resultants empiriques sur donnèes francaises, Document de la Direction de Prèvision No. 96-6. Ministere de l’Economie des Frances et de l’Industrie, Paris.
Maurel F., & Sédillot, B. (1999). A Measure of the Geographic Concentration in French Manufacturing Industries. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 29, 575-604.
Maurice, J. G .B., & Makhloufi, A. E. L. (2007). Dynamic Externalities, Local Industrial Structure and Economic Development: Panel Data Evidence for Morocco. Regional Studies, 41 (6), 823-837. ,
Mills, E. S. (1967). An Aggregated Model of Resource Allocation in a Metropolitan Area. American Economic Review, 57, 197-210.
Mills, E. S., & Hamilton, B. W. (1984). Urban Economics, Third edition, Glenview, II, Scott, Foresman, and Co.
Mitra, A. (1999). Agglomeration Economies as Manifested in Technical Efficiency at the Firm Level. Journal of Urban Economics, 45, 490-500.
Mitra, A., & Soto, H. (2007). Agglomeration Economies in Japan: Technical Efficiency, Growth and Unemployment, Discussion Paper Series, Institute of Developing Economies-JETRO, 48.
Moomaw, R. L. (1983). Is Population Scale A Worthless Surrogate for Business Agglomeration Economies, Regional Science and Urban Economics, 13, 525-545.
Mukkala, K. (2004). Agglomeration Economics in the Finnish Manufacturing Sector. Applied Economics, 36, 2419-2427.
Nakamura, R. (1985). Agglomeration Economics in Urban Manufacturing Industries: A Case of Japanese Cities. Journal of Urban Economics, 17, 108-124.
Nemota, J., & Gota, M. (2003). Measuring Dynamic Efficiency in Production: An Application of Data Envelopment Analysis to Japanese Electric Utilities. Journal of Productivity Analysis, 19, 191-210.
Norsworthy, J. R., & Malmquist, D. (1983). Input Measurement and Productivity Growth in Japanese and U.S. Manufacturing. American Economic Review, 73, 947-967.
Nourse, H. (1968). Regional Economics. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Pan, Z., & Zhang, F. (2002). Urban Productivity in China. Urban Studies, 39, 2267-2281.
Polèse, M., & Shearmur, R. (2004). Économie urbaine et regionale. Paris: Economica.
Porter, M. E. (1990). The Competitive Advantage of Nations. New York, Free Press.
Quigley, J. M. (1998). Urban Diversity and Economic Growth, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 12 (2), 127-138.
Rauch, J. E. (1993). Productivity Gains from Geographic Concentration of Human Capital : Evidence from The Cities. Journal of Urban Economics, 34, 380-400.
Richardson, H. W. (1973). Regional Growth Theory. New York: Halsed Press.
Richardson, H. W. (1978). Regional and Urban Economics. Hindsdale: Dryden Press.
Romer, D. (1986). Advanced Macroeconomics. New York: Mcgraw-Hill.
Rowthorn, R., & Ramaswany, R. (1997). Deindustrialization: Causes and Implication. IMF Working Paper 97/42, International Monetary Fund.
Saxenian, A. (1994). Regional Advantage: Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley and Route 128. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Schaefer, G. P. (1997). The Urban Hierarchy and Urban Area Production Function: A Synthesis. Urban Studies, 58, 315-326.
Schumpeter, J. A. (1942). Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. Global: Routledge.
Scott, I. (1982). Urban and Spatial Development in Mexico. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
Segal, D. (1976). Are There Returns to Scale in City Size? Review of Economics and Statistics, 58, 339-350.
Selting, A., Allanach, C., and Loveridge, S. (1994). The Role of Agglomeration Economies in Firm Location: A Review of the Literature. Staff Paper P94-14, Department of Agriculture and Applied Economics, University of Minnesota.
Shephard, R. W. (1970). Theory of Cost and Production Functions. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Shukla, V. (1984). The Productivity of Indian Cities and Some Implications for Development Policy, Ph.D. Dissertation: Department of Economics, Princeton University.
Soroka, L. (1994). Manufacturing Productivity and City Size in Canada, 1975 and 1985: Does Population Matter? Urban Studies, 31, 895-911.
Stewart, F., & Ghani, F. (1991). How Significant are Externalities for Development? World Development, 19 (6), 569-594.
Susiluoto, I., & Loikkanen, H. A. (2001). Seutukuntien taloudelinen tehokkuus 1988-1999, Tutkimuksia 2001:9, Helsingin kaupungin tietokeskus.
Sveikauskas, L. (1975). The Productivity of Cities. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 89, 393-413.
Tone, K., & Tsutsui, M. (2007). Network DEA: A slacks-based measure approach. Discussing Paper: 07-08, GRIPS Policy Information Center.
Tybout, J. (2000). Manufacturing firms in developing countries: how do they do, and why? Journal of Economic Literature, 38, 11-44.
Van Oort F. G. (2007). Spatial and Sectoral Composition Effects of Agglomeration Economies in the Netherlands, Regional Science, 86, 5-30.
Weber, A. (1909). Theory of the Location of Industry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Weber, A. (1929). A Theory of the Location of Industry. J. Friedrich, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.