近年男性消費市場百家爭鳴，業者無不欲透過男性代言人，為廣告產品傳達男性專屬形象的「吸睛效果」，藉此提高產品討論度與購買意願。而過往廣告代言人的研究上，部分以社會比較理論觀點解釋代言人的廣告效果，然對於引發比較的前置因素卻鮮少著墨，因此本研究即欲探討哪些前置因素會引發男性進行社會比較，並聚焦於高度外表吸引力代言人情境下所對應的向上社會比較。另外，基於羨慕理論，當廣告觀眾進行向上社會比較後，將可能產生不同類型之羨慕情緒，並作用於廣告效果，所以釐清哪些干擾因素可決定男性在向上社會比較後產生何種類型羨慕情緒較多，對於廣告業者至關重要。
本研究採實驗法檢驗假說，樣本設定為18至35歲的男性消費者，共進行兩階段實驗。實驗一旨在探討高度外表吸引力男性代言人的有無露出肌肉圖像與眼神凝視方向是否會引發男性消費者進行外表上的向上社會比較，採用2(肌肉圖像：露出 vs. 無露出) x2(凝視方向：直視 vs. 非直視)之二因子受測者間實驗設計。而實驗二則再次檢測實驗一假說，並分析向上社會比較程度對於羨慕情緒類型及廣告效果的影響，如何受廣告中的異性圖像與男性代言人美感類型所干擾，為2(肌肉圖像：露出 vs. 無露出) x2(凝視方向：直視 vs. 非直視) x2(異性圖像：有 vs. 無) x2(美感類型：粗曠陽剛 vs. 陰柔中性)之四因子受測者間實驗設計。
實驗結果發現：(1)代言人露出肌肉圖像(相較於未露出)或直視鏡頭(相較於非直視)時，將提升向上社會比較程度，且兩者間存有非可加性互動關係；(2)向上社會比較程度正向影響羨慕感受；(3)廣告中存有異性圖像(相較於未存有)、使用陰柔中性型代言人(相較於粗曠陽剛型)會強化良性羨慕的生成，而消費者的戀愛性向、年齡對其產生較多的良性羨慕或惡意忌妒，亦扮演重要決定因素；(4)整體相對羨慕中介廣告效果反應。本研究結果對男性在外貌的社會比較、羨慕情緒與男性代言人廣告具重要理論貢獻，在實務意涵上，可供業者在設計廣告之參考，也有助於男性消費者更加了解自身的廣告訊息處理機制。

In recent years, male product market have grown dramatically. To catch male consumers’ attention and increase product sales, practitioners frequently use male spokespersons to promote products. In previous research, many scholars apply social comparison theory to explain the advertising effectiveness of the spokespersons. However, the factors that might evoke consumers’ comparison are rarely discussed. This study aims to investigate the effects of possible determinants on male consumers’ degree of upward social comparison with highly attractive spokespersons. In addition, based on the envy theory, the audience’s upward social comparison would evoke different types of envy, which have an effect on advertising effectiveness. Therefore, to clarify which type of envy is evoked is essential for the practitioners to predict advertising effectiveness. Therefore, this study also examines the possible moderators on the formation of envy types.
This research used the experiment method to test the hypotheses. Research sample was set to male consumers aged from 18 to 35 years old, and the experiments were conducted in two stages. Experiment 1 was designed to investigate whether a high attractive male spokesperson revealed his muscle (i.e., naked to the waist) and the direction of gaze would increase consumers’ upward social comparison. A 2(muscle image: revealing vs. not revealing) x2(gaze direction: straight vs. not straight) between-subjects design was conducted. Besides testing the antecedents of upward social comparison again, Experiment 2 examined the effects of the degree of upward social comparison on envy types and advertising effectiveness and the moderation of heterosexual image and male beauty types. A 2(muscle image: revealing vs. not revealing) x2(gaze direction: straight vs. not straight) x2(hererosexual image: yes vs. no) x2(beauty type: masculine vs. feminine) berween-subjects design was conducted.
The analytical results indicate that: (1) when a highly attractive male spokesperson reveals his muscular body (vs. not reveals) or gazes directly at the camera (vs. not), it would raise the degree of upward comparison, but there is a non-additive interactive relationship between the two factors; (2) the degree of upward social comparison positive affects the participants’ general envy emotion; (3) advertising that features the heterosexual image (vs. not) or uses the feminine male spokesperson (vs. masculine) would strengthen the formation of benign envy, and consumers’ sexual orientation and age are also important factors that affect the formation of different types of envy; (4) overall relative envy mediates advertising effectiveness. This research results make theoretical contributions to male social comparison in appearance, envy emotion, and male-spokesperson ads, as well as provide practical suggestion for practitioners on how to design male product ads to generate better effects. Moreover, the findings help male consumers understand how they process advertising messages.

論文審定書 i
誌謝 ii
中文摘要 iii
英文摘要 iv
目錄 v
圖表目錄 vi
第一章 緒論 1
第一節 研究背景 1
第二節 研究動機 2
第三節 研究目的 7
第四節 研究範圍 8
第二章 文獻探討 9
第一節 社會比較理論 9
一、社會比較 9
二、社會比較動機與方式 10
三、社會比較過程 11
四、社會比較的效果 11
五、小結 14
第二節 羨慕理論 15
一、羨慕 15
二、羨慕的類型 16
三、羨慕的效果 17
四、小結 18
第三節 男性代言人 19
一、廣告代言人 19
二、男性代言人影響因素 19
三、男性代言人相關研究 22
四、小結 23
第四節 凝視方向 23
一、凝視 23
二、凝視方向 24
三、小結 25
第五節 異性圖像 26
一、異性圖像 26
二、異性圖像相關研究 27
三、小結 27
第六節 男性美感類型 28
一、性別刻板印象 29
二、美感類型相關研究 31
三、小結 33
第三章 研究架構與假說推論 35
第一節 研究架構 35
第二節 研究假說 37
第四章 實驗一 43
第一節 研究方法 43
一、樣本與實驗設計 43
二、實驗刺激與前測 43
三、實驗程序 46
四、變數衡量 47
第二節 分析結果 50
一、研究樣本 50
二、變數的平均值、標準差及量表信度分析 52
三、研究變數之操弄性檢定 52
四、假說驗證 58
五、補充分析 63
第三節 討論 67
第五章 實驗二 71
第一節 研究方法 71
一、樣本與實驗設計 71
二、實驗刺激與前測 71
三、實驗程序 74
四、變數衡量 74
第二節 分析結果 76
一、研究樣本 76
二、變數的平均值、標準差及量表信度分析 78
三、研究變數之操弄性檢定 79
四、假說驗證 85
五、補充分析 96
第三節 討論 114
第六章 結論與建議 126
第一節 研究發現與討論 126
第二節 理論意涵 130
第三節 實務意涵 136
第四節 研究限制與未來研究方向 140
參考文獻 147
附錄一、前測問卷 172
附錄二、實驗問卷 181
附錄三、階層迴歸分析結果 201

一、中文文獻:
Buzz口碑研究室，2014。男性保養市場口碑冷清提升討論熱度要從「創造需求」。取自：http://www.i-buzz.com.tw/report-1.asp?ID=436
EOLembrain東方快線研究部，2014。男性保養意識抬頭，仍有成長空間。取自：
http://www.eolembrain.com/Latest_View.aspx?SelectID=3534y
中時電子報，2015。消費新勢力 陸粉紅經濟崛起。取自：http://www.chinatimes.com/newspapers/20151128001015-260309
王冀霞，2009。台灣地區17-30 歲年輕族群生活型態歲年輕族群 生活型態與服裝消費趨勢調查分析。取自：http://www.fibre2fashion.com/news/textile-news/newsdetails. aspx?news_id=110235
江佩君，2016。男性時尚自覺「他」時代來臨，聯合報，三月二十七日。取自： http://udn.com/news/story/7270/1589917
波仕特線上市調，2009。男性沐浴乳代言人調查。取自：http://www.enews.com.tw/news_view.aspx?id=INF_INFORMATION000000984
創市際市場研究顧問，2013。「男性美容篇」小調查。取自：http://news.ixresearch.com/?p=7162
莎莎香水，2014。第八屆莎莎香水奧斯卡。取自：https://event.ad.megais.com/sasa2014/index.html
壹讀，2015。2015中國LGBT群體生活消費調查報告發布。取自：https://read01.com/P5P4JB.html
蘋果日報，2016。女人眼中的「性感男神」　具備這4大特徵。取自：http://www.appledaily.com.tw/realtimenews/article/new/20160617/888402/
李卓夫，2000。大學生性別角色刻板印象與兩性平權態度關係之研究，國立成功大學教育研究所碩士論文。
李冠甫，2011。探討異性性感圖像對於男性消費者產品奢華享樂性認知與多樣化搜尋行為之影響，逢甲大學國際貿易所碩士論文。
李建興，2006。重視外表不再是女人的專利－型男搶鋒頭 男性消費力站起來，今周刊，十月十七日，第 512 期。
李美枝、鐘秋玉，1996。性別與性別角色析論，本土心理學研究，6，260-299。
李美枝，1984。女性心理學，大洋出版社
林志成，2005。眼睛注視：獨特的還是不獨特的？，心理科學進展，13，398-405。
林芳玫、張晉芬，1999。性別，台北：巨流圖書公司
林雲，2003。消費文化與父權體制對男性美的建構─以男性化妝品為例，國立台灣大學法教分處政治學研究所碩士論文。
周軒逸、練乃華 ，2010。 又愛又怕的夢幻市場─ 同性戀廣告效果之研究。中山管理評論，18(3)， 769-803。
邵怡華，2005。Metrosexual 都會男不美不行，自由時報，三月二十一日，2版。
洪嘉琳，2006。男性臉部保養品：乳液，男性的最愛，東方線上E-ICP，八月十日。
徐振傑，2004。女性商品, 男性代言電視廣告中的 “新” 男性形象與再現意涵，傳播與管理研究，3(2)，133-159。
袁支翔、蕭蘋，2011。展售男性氣概：男性生活時尚雜誌呈現的新男性形象分析(1997-2006年)，新聞學研究，107，207-243。
張弘明，2006。台灣男性時尚雜誌廣告與男性外貌形象研究，輔仁大學大眾傳播學研究所碩士論文。
畢恆達、洪文龍，2006。GQ 男人在發燒，台北：女書文化
莊欣怡，2006。包裝要素性別特質對產品性別知覺與產品價值知覺影響之研究:：產品類別，品牌名性別與代言角色性別調和效果之探討，元智大學國際企業學系學位論文。.
陳怡君、陳慧敏，2004 。台灣也吹都會美型男風，經濟日報，九月八日，D3 版。
陳舒珊，2014。她的美麗，妳的哀愁：廣告代言人吸引力之羨慕效果，中山大學傳播管理研究所學位論文。
游美惠、易言媛，2002。男性/陽剛特質&女性/陰柔特質，兩性平等教育季刊， 18，101-106。
黃俊英，1987。行銷研究－管理與技術，台北：華泰書局
劉仲冬，1999。陰陽殊性，男女異行：性別差異的生物論述，性屬關係 (上) 性別與社會建構，台北市：心理
劉秀娟、林明寬，1996。兩性關係：性別刻板化與角色，台北: 揚智文化
蔡佳靜，2006。廣告模特兒外表吸引力的迷思?—不同男性產品之探討，廣告學研究，25， 107-129。
簡微庭，2012。嫉妒的雙面刃—善意嫉妒與惡意嫉妒對消費者產品評價的影響，國立東華大學企業管理研究所學位論文。

二、英文文獻:
ACNielsen, 2007 October. Word-of-mouth the most powerful selling tool: Nielsen Global Survey, retrieved from http://www.nielsen.com/media/2007/pr_071001.html
Business Insider, 2014 July. 29 Eye-Tracking Heatmaps Reveal Where People Really Look, retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/eye-tracking-heatmaps-2014-7
NPD Group, 2014. Men’s Fragrance Usage Report, retrieved from https://www.npd.com/wps/portal/npd/us/news/press-releases/the-npdgroup-reports-on-mens-fragrance-usage/
Adams, G., Turner, H., & Bucks, R., 2005. The experience of body dissatisfaction in men. Body Image, 2(3), 271-283.
Adams, T., Bezner, J., & Steinhardt, M., 1997. The conceptualization and measurement of perceived wellness: Integrating balance across and within dimensions. American Journal of Health Promotion, 11(3), 208-218.
Addis, M.E., & Mahalik, J.R., 2003. Men, masculinity, and the contexts of help seeking. American Psychologist, 58(1), 5-14
Agliata, D., & Tantleff-Dunn, S., 2004. The impact of media exposure on males' body image. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(1), 7-22.
Alexander, M. W., & Judd, B. B., 1986. Differences in attitudes toward nudity in advertising. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior, 23(1), 26-29.
Alexander, S. M., 2003. Stylish hard bodies: Branded masculinity in Men's Health magazine. Sociological Perspectives, 46(4), 535-554.
Alreck, P. L., Settle, R. B., & Belch, M. A., 1982. Who responds to" gendered" ads, and how? Masculine brands versus feminine brands. Journal of Advertising Research, 22(2), 25-32.
Andersen, A. E., & DiDomenico, L., 1992. Diet vs. shape content of popular male and female magazines: A dose‐response relationship to the incidence of eating disorders?. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11(3), 283-287.
Arbour, K. P., & Ginis, K. A. M., 2006. Effects of exposure to muscular and hypermuscular media images on young men's muscularity dissatisfaction and body dissatisfaction. Body Image, 3(2), 153-161.
Archer, J., 2004. Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings. A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8(4), 291-322.
Arpan, L. M., 2002. When in Rome? The effects of spokesperson ethnicity on audience evaluation of crisis communication. Journal of Business Communication, 39(3), 314-339.
Bafna, A., Gandhi, P., Jain, A., Dantara, V., Desai, K., Dholakiya, M., ... & Kanabar, H., 2016. Influence of Celebrity Endorsements on the Consumer Behavior for Facial Care Product. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 2(5), 219-235.
Baghurst, T., Hollander, D. B., Nardella, B., & Haff, G. G., 2006. Change in sociocultural ideal male physique: An examination of past and present action figures. Body Image, 3(1), 87-91.
Baird, A. L., & Grieve, F. G., 2006. Exposure to male models in advertisements leads to a decrease in men's body satisfaction. North American Journal of Psychology, 8(1), 115-121.
Banaji, M. R., Hardin, C., & Rothman, A. J., 1993. Implicit stereotyping in person judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(2), 272–281.
Bandura, A., 2001. Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 1-26.
Bano, S., & Sharif, M. A. M., 2016. Metrosexual: Emerging and Lucrative Segment for Marketers. International Review of Management and Marketing, 6(4S), 114-119.
Barkow, J. H., 1989. Darwin, sex, and status: Biological approaches to mind and culture, YTO, University of Toronto Press.
Baron‐Cohen, S., Campbell, R., Karmiloff‐Smith, A., Grant, J., & Walker, J., 1995. Are children with autism blind to the mentalistic significance of the eyes?. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 13(4), 379-398.
Barry, B., & Phillips, B. J., 2015. The fashion engagement grid: understanding men's responses to fashion advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 35(3), 438-464.
Bartholome, A., Tewksbury, R., & Bruzzone, A., 2000. “I want a man”: Patterns of attraction in all-male personal ads. The Journal of Men's Studies, 8(3), 309-321.
Belch, G. E., Belch, M. A., & Villarreal, A., 1987. Effects of advertising communications: Review of research. Research in Marketing, 9, 59-117.
Belk, R. W., 2008. Marketing and envy. Envy: Theory and Research, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Berger, J., & Heath, C., 2007. Where consumers diverge from others: Identity signaling and product domains. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(2), 121-134.
Bhutada, N. S., & Rollins, B. L., 2015. Disease-specific direct-to-consumer advertising of pharmaceuticals: An examination of endorser type and gender effects on consumers' attitudes and behaviors. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 11(6), 891-900.
Birditt, K. S., & Fingerman, K. L., 2003. Age and gender differences in adults' descriptions of emotional reactions to interpersonal problems. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58(4), 237-245.
Biswas, S., Hussain, M., & O'Donnell, K., 2009. Celebrity endorsements in advertisements and consumer perceptions: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Global Marketing, 22(2), 121-137.
Björklund, A., & Jäntti, M., 1999. Intergenerational mobility of socio-economic status in comparative perspective, NSW, Social Policy Research Centre, University of New South Wales.
Blazina, C., & Watkins, E.C., 2000. Separation/individuation, parental attachment, and male gender role conflict: Attitudes toward the feminine and the fragile masculine self. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 1(2), 126-132.
Bleske-Rechek, A., & Buss, D. M., 2006. Sexual strategies pursued and mate attraction tactics deployed. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(6), 1299-1311.
Blond, A., 2008. Impacts of exposure to images of ideal bodies on male body dissatisfaction: A review. Body Image, 5(3), 244-250.
Boni, F., 2002. Framing media masculinities men's lifestyle magazines and the biopolitics of the male body. European Journal of Communication, 17(4), 465-478.
Bower, A. B., & Landreth, S., 2001. Is beauty best? Highly versus normally attractive models in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 30(1), 1-12.
Bower, A. B., 2001. Highly attractive models in advertising and the women who loathe them: The implications of negative affect for spokesperson effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 30(3), 51-63.
Brickman, P., & Bulman, R. J., 1977. Pleasure and pain in social comparison. In J. M. Suls & R. L. Miller (Eds.), Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspective, Washington DC: Hemisphere, 149-186.
Bringle, R. G., 1991. Psychosocial aspects of jealousy: A transactional model. In P. Salovey (Eds.), The Psychology of Jealousy and Envy, New York, NY: Guilford Press, 103-131.
Buss, D. M., 1989. Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12(1), 1-14.
Caballero, M. J., & Pride, W. M., 1984. Selected effects of salesperson sex and attractiveness in direct mail advertisements. The Journal of Marketing, 48(1), 94-100.
Campbell, M. C., & Kirmani, A., 2000. Consumers' use of persuasion knowledge: The effects of accessibility and cognitive capacity on perceptions of an influence agent. Journal of Consumer Research, 27(1), 69-83.
Carlson Jones, D., 2004. Body image among adolescent girls and boys: a longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 40(5), 823-835.
Cash, T. F., & Fleming, E. C., 2002. The impact of body image experiences: development of the body image quality of life inventory. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31(4), 455-460.
Castro-Vázquez, G., 2013. The ‘Beauty’of Male Circumcision in Japan: Gender, Sexuality and the Male Body in a Medical Practice. Sociology, 47(4), 687-704.
Chaiken, S., 1987. The heuristic model of persuasion. In M. P. Zanna, J. M. Olson, & C. P. Herman (Eds.), Social influence: The Ontario symposium, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 5, 3-39.
Chakraborty, S., 2016. An Explanatory study on Indian Young Consumers’ Luxury Consumption: The Underlying Relationship of Interpersonal Influence, Brand Image, Brand Consciousness and Demographic Components with Luxury Brand Purchase Decision. International Journal of Current Engineering and Technology, 6(2), 622-634.
Chan, E., & Sengupta, J., 2013. Observing flattery: A social comparison perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(4), 740-758.
Chang, C., & Hitchon, J. C. B., 2004. When does gender count? Further insights into gender schematic processing of female candidates' political advertisements. Sex Roles, 51(3-4), 197-208.
Pornpitakpan, C., 2003. Cultural adaptation and business relationships: Americans selling to Indonesians, Malaysians, and People's Republic of China Chinese. Journal of Global Marketing, 16(3), 75-103.
Chi, C. W., & Baldwin, C., 2004. Gender and class stereotypes: A comparison of US and Taiwanese magazine advertisements. Race, Gender & Class, 11(2), 156-175.
Cho, A., & Lee, J. H., 2013. Body dissatisfaction levels and gender differences in attentional biases toward idealized bodies. Body Image, 10(1), 95-102.
Chou, H. Y., & Chen, S. S., 2015. Her Beauty Results in Your Sorrow: the Effects of Envy Toward Attractive Spokespersons in Advertising. NA-Advances in Consumer Research, 43, 781-781.
Clarkson, J., 2005. Contesting masculinity’s makeover: Queer Eye, consumer masculinity, and “straight-acting” gays. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 29(3), 235-255.
Clatterbaugh, K., 1997. Contemporary perspectives on masculinity: Men, women, and politics in modern society, CO, Boulder: Westview Press.
Cohen, H. A. G. I. T., Neumann, L. I. L. Y., Alhosshle, A., Kotler, M. O. S. H. E., Abu-Shakra, M. A. H. M. O. U. D., & Buskila, D., 2001. Abnormal sympathovagal balance in men with fibromyalgia. The Journal of Rheumatology, 28(3), 581-589.
Cohen-Charash, Y., & Mueller, J. S., 2007. Does perceived unfairness exacerbate or mitigate interpersonal counterproductive work behaviors related to envy? Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(3), 666-680.
Cohen‐Charash, Y., 2009. Episodic envy. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39(9), 2128-2173.
Cohn, A., & Zeichner, A., 2006. Effects of masculine identity and gender role stress on aggression in men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 7(4), 179-190.
Collins, L. M., 1996. Is reliability obsolete? A commentary on" Are simple gain scores obsolete?". Applied Psychological Measurement, 20(3), 289-292.
Collis, N., Lewis, V., & Crisp, D., 2016. When Is Buff Enough? The Effect of Body Attitudes and Narcissistic Traits on Muscle Dysmorphia. The Journal of Men's Studies, 24(2), 213-225.
Connell, R. W., 1998. Masculinities and globalization. Men and Masculinities, 1(1), 3-23.
Connell, S. D., 2002. Effects of a predator and prey on a foraging reef fish: implications for understanding density‐dependent growth. Journal of Fish Biology, 60(6), 1551-1561.
Corcoran, K., Crusius, J., & Mussweiler, T., 2011. Social comparison: Motives, standards, and mechanisms. In D. Chadee (Eds.), Theories in social psychology, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 119-139.
Crusius, J., & Mussweiler, T., 2012. To achieve or not to achieve? Comparative mindsets elicit assimilation and contrast in goal priming.European. Journal of Social Psychology, 42(6), 780-788.
Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P., 2008. Warmth and competence as universal dimensions of social perception: The stereotype content model and the BIAS map. In M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, New York, NY: Academic Press, 61-149.
Debevec, K., & Iyer, E., 1986. The influence of spokespersons in altering a product's gender image: Implications for advertising effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 15(4), 12-20.
DelPriore, D. J., Hill, S. E., & Buss, D. M., 2012. Envy: Functional specificity and sex-differentiated design features. Personality and Individual Differences, 53(3), 317-322.
Diekman, A. B., & Eagly, A. H., 2000. Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1171–1188.
Dijkstra, P., Gibbons, F. X., & Buunk, A. P., 2010. Social comparison theory. Social Psychological Foundations of Clinical Psychology, 28(3), 195-211.
Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E., 1972. What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24(3), 285-290.
Dodds, W. B., Monroe, K. B., & Grewal, D., 1991. Effects of price, brand, and store information on buyers' product evaluations. Journal of Marketing Research, 28(3), 307-319.
Dreznick, M. T., 2003. Heterosocial competence of rapists and child molesters: A meta‐analysis. Journal of Sex Research, 40(2), 170-178.
Driver IV, J., Davis, G., Ricciardelli, P., Kidd, P., Maxwell, E., & Baron-Cohen, S., 1999. Gaze perception triggers reflexive visuospatial orienting. Visual Cognition, 6(5), 509-540.
Duffy, M. K., Scott, K. L., Shaw, J. D., Tepper, B. J., & Aquino, K., 2012. A social context model of envy and social undermining. Academy of Management Journal, 55(3), 643-666.
Eagly, A. H., Ashmore, R. D., Makhijani, M. G., & Longo, L. C., 1991. What is beautiful is good, but…: A meta-analytic review of research on the physical attractiveness stereotype. Psychological Bulletin, 110(1), 109-128.
Eisend, M., Plagemann, J., & Sollwedel, J., 2014. Gender roles and humor in advertising: The occurrence of stereotyping in humorous and nonhumorous advertising and its consequences for advertising effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 43(3), 256-273.
Ellsworth, P. C., & Smith, C. A., 1988. Shades of joy: Patterns of appraisal differentiating pleasant emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 2(4), 301-331.
Epstude, K., & Mussweiler, T., 2009. What you feel is how you compare: how comparisons influence the social induction of affect. Emotion, 9(1), 1-14.
Fallon, A. E., & Rozin, P., 1985. Sex differences in perceptions of desirable body shape. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94(1), 102-105.
Farquhar, J. C., & Wasylkiw, L., 2007. Media images of men: Trends and consequences of body conceptualization. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8(3), 145-160.
Fausto-Sterling, A., 1995. Animal models for the development of human sexuality: A critical evaluation. Journal of Homosexuality, 28(3-4), 217-236.
Feather, N. T., & Sherman, R., 2002. Envy, resentment, schadenfreude, and sympathy: Reactions to deserved and undeserved achievement and subsequent failure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(7), 953-961.
Feingold, A., 1992. Good-looking people are not what we think. Psychological Bulletin, 111(2), 304-341.
Felicio, D. M., & Miller, C. T., 1994. Social comparison in medical school: What students say about gender and similarity. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 15(3), 277-296.
Festinger, L., 1954. A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117-140.
Fetto, J., 2001. Quackery no more: alternative medicine moves into the mainstream. American Demographics, 12(1), 10-11.
Fisher, W. A., & Byrne, D., 1978. Sex differences in response to erotica? Love versus lust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(2), 117-125.
Fiske, S. T., Lin, M., & Neuberg, S. L., 1999. The continuum model: Ten years later. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process Theories in Social Psychology, New York: Guilford, 231-254.
Foddy, M., & Crundall, I., 1993. A field study of social comparison processes in ability evaluation. British Journal of Social Psychology, 32(4), 287-305.
Foster, R. F., 1989. Modern Ireland, 1600-1972. Penguin.
Frederick, D. A., Fessler, D. M., & Haselton, M. G., 2005. Do representations of male muscularity differ in men's and women's magazines? Body Image, 2(1), 81-86.
Fried, Y., & Slowik, L. H., 2004. Enriching goal-setting theory with time: An integrated approach. Academy of Management Review, 29(3), 404-422.
Friedman, H. H., & Friedman, L., 1979. Endorser effectiveness by product type. Journal of Advertising Research, 19(5), 63-71.
Friesen, C. K., & Kingstone, A., 1998. The eyes have it! Reflexive orienting is triggered by nonpredictive gaze. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 5(3), 490–495,
Frith, K., Shaw, P., & Cheng, H., 2005. The Construction of Beauty: A Cross‐Cultural Analysis of Women's Magazine Advertising. Journal of Communication, 55(1), 56-70.
Fussner, L. M., & Smith, A. R., 2015. It’s Not Me, It’s You: Perceptions of Partner Body Image Preferences Associated With Eating Disorder Symptoms in Gay and Heterosexual Men. Journal of Homosexuality, 62(10), 1329-1344.
Ganahl, D. J., Prinsen, T. J., & Netzley, S. B., 2003. A content analysis of prime time commercials: A contextual framework of gender representation. Sex Roles, 49(9-10), 545-551.
Ganel T, Goshen-Gottstein Y, Goodale M A., 2005. Interactions between the processing of gaze direction and facial expression. Vision Research, 45(9), 1191-1200.
Garcia, C. M., 2012. Beauty and the Beast: The Attractiveness Bias in an Online Peer Mentoring Program, Doctoral Dissertation, University of Central Florida, FL, USA.
Gibbons, F. X., & Buunk, B. P., 1999. Individual differences in social comparison: development of a scale of social comparison orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(1), 129.
Gierl, H., & Huettl, V., 2010. Are scarce products always more attractive? The interaction of different types of scarcity signals with products' suitability for conspicuous consumption. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 27(3), 225-235.
Goethals, G. R., & Darley, J., 1977. Social comparison theory: An SOCIAL STIGMA AND SELF-ESTEEM 627 attributional approach. In J. M. Suls & R. L. Miller (Eds.), Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives, Washington, DC: Halsted/Wiley, 259-278.
Gold, B. T., 1996. Enviousness and its relationship to maladjustment and psychopathology, Perssonality and Individual Differences, 21(3), 311-321.
Goodman, J. R., Morris, J. D., & Sutherland, J. C., 2008. Is beauty a joy forever? Young women's emotional responses to varying types of beautiful advertising models. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 85(1), 147-168.
Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S., 2008. The role of the media in body image concerns among women: a meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134(3), 460-476.
Green, A. L., Simpson, E. J., Littlewood, J. J., Macdonald, I. A., & Greenhaff, P. L., 1996. Carbohydrate ingestion augments creatine retention during creatine feeding in humans. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 158(2), 195-202.
Griskevicius, V., Tybur, J. M., Sundie, J. M., Cialdini, R. B., Miller, G. F., & Kenrick, D. T., 2007. Blatant benevolence and conspicuous consumption: when romantic motives elicit strategic costly signals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(1), 85-102.
Groesz, L. M., Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K., 2002. The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: A meta‐analytic review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31(1), 1-16.
Grogan, S., Fry, G., Gough, B., & Conner, M., 2009. Smoking to stay thin or giving up to save face? Young men and women talk about appearance concerns and smoking. British Journal of Health Psychology, 14(1), 175-186.
Grogan, S., Williams, Z., & Conner, M., 1996. The effects of viewing same-gender photographic models on body-esteem. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20(4), 569-575.
Gulas, C. S., & McKeage, K., 2000. Extending social comparison: An examination of the unintended consequences of idealized advertising imagery. Journal of Advertising, 29(2), 17-28.
Halliwell, E., Dittmar, H., & Orsborn, A., 2007. The effects of exposure to muscular male models among men: exploring the moderating role of gym use and exercise motivation. Body Image, 4(3), 278-287.
Hargreaves, D. A., & Tiggemann, M., 2009. Muscular ideal media images and men's body image: Social comparison processing and individual vulnerability. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10(2), 109-119.
Harris, C. R., 2003. A review of sex differences in sexual jealousy, including self-report data, psychophysiological responses, interpersonal violence, and morbid jealousy. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7(2), 102-128.
Hart, K. P. R., 2004. We're here, we're queer—and we're better than you: The representational superiority of gay men to heterosexuals on Queer Eye for the Straight Guy. The Journal of Men's Studies, 12(3), 241-253.
Hatala, M.N., & Predhodka, J., 1996. Content analysis of gay male and lesbian personal advertisements. Psychological Reports, 78(2), 371-374.
Hatfield, E., & Sprecher, S., 1986. Measuring passionate love in intimate relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 9(4), 383-410.
Hatoum, I. J., & Belle, D., 2004. Mags and abs: Media consumption and bodily concerns in men. Sex Roles, 51(7-8), 397-407.
Hausenblas, H. A., Janelle, C. M., Gardner, R. E., & Hagan, A. L., 2002. Effects of exposure to physique slides on the emotional responses of men and women. Sex Roles, 47(11-12), 569-575.
Heidrich, S. M., & Ryff, C. D., 1993. Physical and mental health in later life: The self-system as mediator. Psychology and Aging, 8(3), 327.
Heilman, M. E., 2001. Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the organizational ladder, Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657–674.
Hill, K. R., & Hurtado, A. M., 1996. Ache life history: The ecology and demography of a foraging people, Transaction Publishers.
Hill, S. E., DelPriore, D. J., & Vaughan, P. W., 2011. The cognitive consequences of envy: attention, memory, and self-regulatory depletion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(4), 653-666.
Hirschman, E. C., & Thompson, C. J., 1997. Why media matter: toward a richer understanding of consumers' relationships with advertising and mass media. Journal of Advertising, 26(1), 43-60.
Hobza, C. L., Walker, K. E., Yakushko, O., & Peugh, J. L., 2007. What about men? Social comparison and the effects of media images on body and self-esteem. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8(3), 161-172.
Hofstede, G., 2001. Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations, Sage.
Holt, D. B., & Thompson, C. J., 2004. Man-of-action heroes: The pursuit of heroic masculinity in everyday consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(2), 425-440.
Holtzworth-Monroe, A., Meehan, J.C., Herron, K., Rehman, U., & Stuart, G.L., 2000. Testing the Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart (1994) batterer typology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(6), 1000-1019.
Hupka, R. B., 1984. Jealousy: Compound emotion or label for a particular situation? Motivation and Emotion, 8(2), 141-155.
Ihssen, N., Mussweiler, T., & Linden, D. E., 2016. Observing others stay or switch–How social prediction errors are integrated into reward reversal learning. Cognition, 153, 19-32.
Jackson, T., & Chen, H., 2015. Predictors of cosmetic surgery consideration among young Chinese women and men. Sex Roles, 73(5-6), 214-230.
Jagger, J., 1998. Natural background radiation and cancer death in Rocky Mountain states and Gulf Coast states. Health Physics, 75(4), 428-430.
Jones, D. C., 2001. Social comparison and body image: Attractiveness comparisons to models and peers among adolescent girls and boys. Sex Roles, 45(9), 645-664.
Jones, M. Y., Stanaland, A. J., & Gelb, B. D., 1998. Beefcake and cheesecake: Insights for advertisers. Journal of Advertising, 27(2), 33-51.
Jones, S. P., Doran, D. A., Leatt, P. B., Maher, B., & Pirmohamed, M., 2001. Short-term exercise training improves body composition and hyperlipidaemia in HIV-positive individuals with lipodystrophy. Aids, 15(15), 2049-2051.
Kahle, L. R., & Homer, P. M., 1985. Physical attractiveness of the celebrity endorser: A social adaptation perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 11(4), 954-961.
Kamins, M. A., 1990. An investigation into the “match-up” hypothesis in celebrity advertising: When beauty may be only skin deep. Journal of Advertising, 19(1), 4-13.
Kaufman, G., & Phua, V. C., 2003. Is ageism alive in date selection among men? Age requests among gay and straight men in Internet personal ads. The Journal of Men's Studies, 11(2), 225-235.
Kellner, D., 1990. Television and the Crisis of Democracy, Westview Press.
Kemper, T. D., 1990. Social structure and testosterone: Explorations of the socio-bio-social chain, Rutgers University Press.
Kenrick, D. T., Sadalla, E. K., Groth, G., & Trost, M. R., 1990. Evolution, traits, and the stages of human courtship: Qualifying the parental investment model. Journal of Personality, 58(1), 97-116.
Khan, A. K., Quratulain, S., Sultana, N., & Peretti, J. M., 2009. Emotional Reactions to Perceived Injustice: Anger, Envy or Sadness?. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 4(7), 125-138.
Kilianski, S.E., 2003. Explaining heterosexual men's attitudes toward women and gay men: The theory of exclusively masculine identity. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 4(1), 37-56.
Kim, J., Han, W., Kim, D., & Paramita, W., 2013. Is beauty in the eye of the beholder? Gender and beauty in the cosmetics sector: A comparative study of Indonesia and Korea. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 31(2), 127-140.
Kimmel, A. J., & Tissier-Desbordes, E., 1999. Males, masculinity and consumption: An exploratory investigation. European Advances in Consumer Research, 4, 243-251.
King, J., McClelland, A., & Furnham, A., 2015. Sex really does sell: The recall of sexual and non‐sexual television advertisements in sexual and non‐sexual programmes. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29(2), 210-216.
Kleinke, C. L., 1986. Gaze and eye contact: a research review. Psychological Bulletin, 100(1), 78-100.
Kling, J., Rodgers, R. F., & Frisén, A., 2016. Young men's endorsement and pursuit of appearance ideals: The prospective role of appearance investment. Body Image, 16(March), 10-16.
Klump, K. L., Perkins, P. S., Burt, S. A., McGUE, M. A. T. T., & Iacono, W. G., 2007. Puberty moderates genetic influences on disordered eating. Psychological Medicine, 37(05), 627-634.
Kobayashi, H., & Kohshima, S., 2001. Unique morphology of the human eye and its adaptive meaning: comparative studies on external morphology of the primate eye. Journal of Human Evolution, 40(5), 419-435.
Kolbe, R. H., & Albanese, P. J., 1996. Man to man: A content analysis of sole-male images in male-audience magazines. Journal of Advertising, 25(4), 1-20.
Krawiec, K., 2015. The male media ideal: Effect of body conceptualization and knowledge of digital alteration on older adolescent and college-aged men, Doctoral Dissertation, University of Windsor, ON, CA.
Krcmar, M., Giles, S., & Helme, D., 2008. Understanding the process: How mediated and peer norms affect young women's body esteem. Communication Quarterly, 56(2), 111-130.
Kruglanski, A. W., & Mayseless, O., 1990. Classic and current social comparison research: Expanding the perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 108(2), 195-208.
Labre, M. P., 2005. Burn fat, build muscle: A content analysis of Men's Health and Men's Fitness. International Journal of Men's Health, 4(2), 187-200.
Laidlaw, K. E., Rothwell, A., & Kingstone, A., 2016. Camouflaged attention: covert attention is critical to social communication in natural settings. Evolution and Human Behavior, 2016, 1-7.
Lange, J., & Crusius, J., 2015. The tango of two deadly sins: The social-functional relation of envy and pride. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(3), 453-473.
Langton, S. R., & Bruce, V., 1999. Reflexive visual orienting in response to the social attention of others. Visual Cognition, 6(5), 541-567.
LaTour, M. S., & Henthorne, T. L., 1994. Ethical judgments of sexual appeals in print advertising. Journal of Advertising, 23(3), 81-90.
Latteier, C., 1998. Breasts: The women's perspective on an American obsession, Psychology Press.
Leit, R. A., Gray, J. J., & Pope, H. G., 2002. The media's representation of the ideal male body: A cause for muscle dysmorphia?. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31(3), 334-338.
Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K., 2009. “Everybody knows that mass media are/are not [pick one] a cause of eating disorders”: A critical review of evidence for a causal link between media, negative body image, and disordered eating in females. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28(1), 9-42.
Levine, M. P., & Piran, N., 2004. The role of body image in the prevention of eating disorders. Body Image, 1(1), 57-70.
Li, C., 2010. The effects of self-relevance of the comparison dimensions and social comparison orientation on consumers' purchase behavior. Doctoral Dissertation, Hong Kong Baptist University, HK.
Li, D. C., 2011. Online social network acceptance: a social perspective. Internet Research, 21(5), 562-580.
Lichtenstein, D. R., Burton, S., & Netemeyer, R. G., 1997. An examination of deal proneness across sales promotion types: a consumer segmentation perspective. Journal of Retailing, 73(2), 283-297.
Lien, N. H., & Chen, Y. L., 2013. Narrative ads: The effect of argument strength and story format. Journal of Business Research, 66(4), 516-522.
Lien, N. H., Chou, H. Y., & Chang, C. H., 2012. Advertising effectiveness and the match-up hypothesis: Examining spokesperson sex, attractiveness type, and product image. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 33(2), 282-300.
Lin, L., & DeCusati, F., 2015. Muscle Dysmorphia and the Perception of Men’s Peer Muscularity Preferences. American Journal of Men's Health, 1557988315598367.
Liu, M. T., Huang, Y., and Jiang, M., 2007, “Relations among Attractiveness of Endorsers, Match-Up, and Purchase Intention in Sport Marketing in China,” Journal of Consumer Marketing, 24(6), 358-371.
Lorenzen, L. A., Grieve, F. G., & Thomas, A., 2004. Brief report: Exposure to muscular male models decreases men’s body satisfaction. Sex Roles, 51(11-12), 743-748.
Lowry, B., 2003. It’s profitable to be a little bit gay, LA, Los Angeles Times.
Loyau, A., Saint Jalme, M., Cagniant, C., & Sorci, G., 2005. Multiple sexual advertisements honestly reflect health status in peacocks (Pavo cristatus). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 58(6), 552-557.
Mahalik, J.R. Locke, B.D., Scott, R.P., Gottfried, M., & Freitas, G., 2003. Development of the conformity to masculine norms inventory. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 4(1), 3-25
Markus, H., & Oyserman, D., 1989. Gender and thought: The role of the self-concept. In M. Crawford & M. Hamilton (Eds.), Gender and Thought, New York, NY: Springer-Verlagm, 100-127.
Martin, A. D., Stirling, W. J., Thorne, R. S., & Watt, G., 2009. Parton distributions for the LHC. The European Physical Journal C, 63(2), 189-285.
McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A., 2005. A prospective study of pressures from parents, peers, and the media on extreme weight change behaviors among adolescent boys and girls. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(5), 653-668.
McCracken, G., 1989. Who is the celebrity endorser? Cultural foundations of the endorsement process. Journal of Consumer Research, 16(3), 310-321.
McLeod, J. M., & Chaffee, S. H., 1973. Interpersonal approaches to communication research. American Behavioral Scientist, 16(4), 469-499.
McQuail, D., 2000. Some reflections on the western bias of media theory. Asian Journal of Communication, 10(2), 1-13.
Meyers-Levy, J., & Tybout, A. M., 1989. Schema congruity as a basis for product evaluation. Journal of Consumer Research, 16(1), 39-54.
Meyers‐Levy, J., 1989. “Gender differences in information processing: a selectivity interpretation”, inCafferata, P and Tybout, A. (Eds), Cognitive and Affective Responses to Advertising, Lexington Books, Lexington, MA, 219‐260.
Michael R. Solomon, Richard D. Ashmore & Laura C. Longo., 1992. The Beauty Match-up Hypothesis: Congruence between Types of Beauty and Product Images in Advertising. Journal of Advertising, 21(4), 23-34.
Mikusková, E. B., Hanák, R., & Cavojová, V., 2015. Appropriateness of two inventories measuring intuition (The PID and the REI) for Slovak population. Studia Psychologica, 57(1), 63-82.
Miller, E., & Halberstadt, J., 2005. Media consumption, body image and thin ideals in New Zealand men and women. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 34(3), 189-195.
Miller, G. F., & Todd, P. M., 1998. Mate choice turns cognitive. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2(5), 190-198.
Moller, A. P., & Petrie, M., 2002. Condition dependence, multiple sexual signals, and immunocompetence in peacocks. Behavioral Ecology, 13(2), 248-253.
Moon, J., Chadee, D., & Tikoo, S., 2008. Culture, product type, and price influences on consumer purchase intention to buy personalized products online. Journal of Business Research, 61(1), 31-39.
Moore, T. M. & Stuart, G.L., 2004. Effects of masculine gender role stress on men’s cognitive, affective, physiological and aggressive responses to intimate conflict situations. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 5(2), 132-142.
Morrison, M. A., & Morrison, T. G., 2003. Development and validation of a scale measuring modern prejudice toward gay men and lesbian women. Journal of Homosexuality, 43(2), 15-37.
Moschis, G. P., 1976. Social comparison and informal group influence. Journal of Marketing Research, 13(3), 237-244.
Mowen, J. C., & Brown, S. W., 1981. On explaining and predicting the effectiveness of celebrity endorsers. Advances in Consumer Research, 8(1), 437-441.
Muehling, D. D., & Pascal, V. J., 2011. An empirical investigation of the differential effects of personal, historical, and non-nostalgic advertising on consumer responses. Journal of Advertising, 40(2), 107-122.
Muehling, D. D., Sprott, D. E., & Sprott, D. E., 2004. The power of reflection: an empirical examination of nostalgia advertising effects. Journal of Advertising, 33(3), 25-35.
Muehling, D. D., Stoltman, J. J., & Grossbart, S., 1990. The impact of comparative advertising on levels of message involvement. Journal of Advertising, 19(4), 41-50.
Mussweiler, T., 2003. Comparison processes in social judgment: mechanisms and consequences. Psychological Review, 110(3), 472-489.
Mussweiler, T., Rüter, K., & Epstude, K., 2004. The man who wasn't there: Subliminal social comparison standards influence self-evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(5), 689-696.
Myers, P. N., & Biocca, F. A., 1992. The elastic body image: The effect of television advertising and programming on body image distortions in young women. Journal of Communication, 42(3), 108-133.
Myers, T. A., & Crowther, J. H., 2009. Social comparison as a predictor of body dissatisfaction: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(4), 683-698.
Nasco, S. A., & Bruner, G. C., 2008. Comparing consumer responses to advertising and non‐advertising mobile communications. Psychology & Marketing, 25(8), 821-837.
Neu, Jerome, 1980. Jealous Thoughts, Rorty.
Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R., 2011. The Envy Premium in Product Evaluation, Journal of Consumer Research, 37(6), 984-998.
Nixon, S., 1997. Exhibiting masculinity, in S, Hall. (Eds.), Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices, LON, London: Sage and The Open University, 291–330.
Nixon, S., 2003. The Culture of Advertising, London, Sage.
Oakenfull, G. K., McCarthy, M. S., & Greenlee, T., 2008. Targeting a minority without alienating the majority: Advertising to gays and lesbians in mainstream media. Journal of Advertising Research, 48(2), 191-198.
Oakenfull, G. W., 2013. What Matters: Factors Influencing Gay Consumers' Evaluations of “Gay-Friendly” Corporate Activities. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 32(special issue), 79-89.
Ohanian, R., 1990. Construction and validation of a scale to measure celebrity endorsers' perceived expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. Journal of Advertising, 19(3), 39-52.
Okoroafo, S. C., Koh, A. C., & Gammoh, B. S., 2010. Gender differences in perceptions of the marketing stimuli of family owned businesses (FOBs). International Journal of Marketing Studies, 2(1), 3-12.
Paekh, H. & Kanekar, S., 1994. The Physical Attractiveness Stereotype in A Consumer-Related Situation. Journal of Social Psychology, 134(3), 297-300.
Parks, Craig D., Ann C. Rumble, & Donelle C. Posey, 2002. The Effects of Envy on Reciprocation in a Social Dilemma. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(4), 509–520.
Parrott, W. G., & Smith, R. H., 1993. Distinguishing the experiences of envy and jealousy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(6), 906-920.
Patterson, M., & Elliott, R., 2002. Negotiating masculinities: Advertising and the inversion of the male gaze. Consumption, Markets and Culture, 5(3), 231-249.
Perrett, D. I., & Emery N. J., 1994. Understanding the intentions of others from visual signals: neurophysiological evidence. Cahiers de Psychol, 13(5), 683-694.
Petroshius, S. M., & Crocker, K. E., 1989. An empirical analysis of spokesperson characteristics on advertisement and product evaluations. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 17(3), 217-225.
Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Schumann, D., 1983. Central and peripheral routes to advertising effectiveness: The moderating role of involvement. Journal of Consumer Research, 10(2), 135-146.
Pfau, A., 1994. Re: Urinary tract infections in healthy university men. The Journal of urology, 151(3), 705-706.
Piccini, P., Brooks, D. J., Björklund, A., Gunn, R. N., Grasby, P. M., Rimoldi, O., ... & Lindvall, O., 1999. Dopamine release from nigral transplants visualized in vivo in a Parkinson's patient. Nature neuroscience, 2(12), 1137-1140.
Piskorz, J., & Piskorz, Z., 2009. Situational determinants of envy and schadenfreude. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 40(3), 137-144.
Pollay, R. W., & Gallagher, K., 1990. Advertising and cultural values: Reflections in the distorted mirror. International Journal of Advertising, 9(4), 359-372.
Pollay, R. W., 1986. Quality of life in the padded sell: Common criticisms of advertising's cultural character and international public policies. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 9(1-2), 173-250.
Pope, H. G., Olivardia, R., Gruber, A., & Borowiecki, J., 1999. Evolving ideals of male body image as seen through action toys. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26(1), 65-72.
Pope, H., Phillips, K. A., & Olivardia, R., 2002. The Adonis complex: How to identify, treat, and prevent body obsession in men and boys, Simon & Schuster.
Porter, L., & Golan, G. J., 2006. From subservient chickens to brawny men: A comparison of viral advertising to television advertising. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 6(2), 30-38.
Posavac, H. D., Posavac, S. S., & Weigel, R. G., 2001. Reducing the impact of media images on women at risk for body image disturbance: Three targeted interventions. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20(3), 324-340.
Posner, M. I., 1980. Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32(1), 3-25.
Putrevu, S., 2008. Consumer responses toward sexual and nonsexual appeals: The influence of involvement, need for cognition (NFC), and gender. Journal of Advertising, 37(2), 57-70.
Quintanilla, L., & de López, K. J., 2013. The niche of envy: Conceptualization, coping strategies, and the ontogenesis of envy in cultural psychology. Culture & Psychology, 19(1), 76-94.
Reichert, T., 2003. What is sex in advertising? Perspectives from consumer behavior and social science research. In T. Reichert, & J. Lambiase. (Eds.), Sex in Advertising, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 11-38.
Richins, M. L., 1991. Social comparison and the idealized images of advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(1), 71-83.
Ridgeway, R. T., & Tylka, T. L., 2005. College Men's Perceptions of Ideal Body Composition and Shape. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6(3), 209-220.
Roberts, A., & Good, E., 2010. Media images and female body dissatisfaction: The moderating effects of the Five-Factor traits. Eating Behaviors, 11(4), 211-216.
Roney, J. R., Lukaszewski, A. W., & Simmons, Z. L., 2007. Rapid endocrine responses of young men to social interactions with young women. Hormones and Behavior, 52(3), 326-333.
Rosenberg, S., & Sedlak, A., 1972. Structural Representations of Implicit Personality Theory, in Advance in Experimental Social Psychology. (Eds.), Leonard Berkowitz, New York: Academic Press, 235-297.
Rubinsky, H. J., Eckerman, D. A., Rubinsky, E. W., & Hoover, C. R., 1987. Early-phase physiological response patterns to psychosexual stimuli: Comparison of male and female patterns. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 16(1), 45-56.
Saad, G., 2007. The evolutionary bases of consumption. Psychology Press.
Sagarin, B. J., & Guadagno, R. E., 2004. Sex differences in the contexts of extreme jealousy. Personal Relationships, 11(3), 319-328.
Sagarin, B. J., Martin, A. L., Coutinho, S. A., Edlund, J. E., Patel, L., Skowronski, J. J., & Zengel, B., 2012. Sex differences in jealousy: A meta-analytic examination. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33(6), 595-614.
Schaubroeck, J., & Lam, S. S., 2004. Comparing lots before and after: Promotion rejectees' invidious reactions to promotees. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 94(1), 33-47.
Schmitt, D. P., & Buss, D. M., 1996. Strategic self-promotion and competitor derogation: sex and context effects on the perceived effectiveness of mate attraction tactics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(6), 1185-1204.
Schwinghammer, S. A., Stapel, D. A., & Blanton, H., 2006. Different selves have different effects: Self-activation and defensive social comparison. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(1), 27-39.
Sczesny, S. J. B., Neff, D., & Schyns, B., 2004. Gender stereotypes and the attribution of leadership traits: A cross-cultural comparison, Sex Roles, 51(11), 631–645.
Seidlitz, L., & Diener, E., 1998. Sex differences in the recall of affective experiences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 262-271.
Sengupta, J., & Dahl, D. W., 2008. Gender-related reactions to gratuitous sex appeals in advertising. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 18(1), 62-78.
Sentis, K., & Markus, H., 1986. “Brand Personality and Self,” in Advertising and Consumer Psychology, Vol. 3. (Eds). Jerry C. Olson and Keith Sentis, New York: Praeger, 132–148.
Sergios, P. A., & Cody, J., 1985. Physical attractiveness and social assertiveness skills in male homosexual dating behavior and partner selection. The Journal of Social Psychology, 125(4), 505-514.
Severn, J., Belch, G. E., & Belch, M. A., 1990. The effects of sexual and non-sexual advertising appeals and information level on cognitive processing and communication effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 19(1), 14-22.
Sharples, M., 1999. How we write: Writing as creative design, Psychology Press.
Siever, M. D., 1994. Sexual orientation and gender as factors in socioculturally acquired vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and eating disorders. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 62(2), 252-260.
Simpson, J. A., Rholes, W. S., & Phillips, D., 1996. Conflict in close relationships: an attachment perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(5), 899-914.
Smiler, A. P., 2004. Thirty years after the discovery of gender: Psychological concepts and measures of masculinity. Sex Roles, 50(1), 15-26.
Smith, R. H., & Kim, S. H., 2007. Comprehending envy. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 46-64.
Sprecher, S., 1989. The importance to males and females of physical attractiveness, earning potential, and expressiveness in initial attraction. Sex Roles, 21(9-10), 591-607.
Sprott, J. C., 2004. Dynamical models of love. Nonlinear Dynamics, Psychology, and : Life Sciences, 8(3), 303-314.
Stapel, D. A., & Koomen, W., 2001. I, we, and the effects of others on me: how self-construal level moderates social comparison effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(5), 766.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J., 1995. Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797-811.
Steil, J. M., & Hay, J. L., 1997. Social comparison in the workplace: A study of 60 dual-career couples. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(4), 427-438.
Strate, L., 1992. Beer commercials: A manual on masculinity, Sage Publications.
Stratton, R., Donovan, C., Bramwell, S., & Loxton, N. J., 2015. Don’t stop till you get enough: Factors driving men towards muscularity. Body Image, 15, 72-80.
Swann, W. B., Hixon, J. G., Stein-Seroussi, A., & Gilbert, D. T., 1990. The fleeting gleam of praise: cognitive processes underlying behavioral reactions to self-relevant feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(1), 17-26.
Tesser, A., & Campbell, J., 1982. Self‐evaluation maintenance and the perception of friends and strangers. Journal of Personality, 50(3), 261-279.
Tesser, A., 1988. Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 181-228.
Thompson, K., 1997. Media and Cultural Regulation, Sage Publications Ltd.
Thornton, B., & Moore, S., 1993. Physical attractiveness contrast effect: Implications for self-esteem and evaluations of the social self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19(4), 474-480.
Thornton, B., & Ryckman, R. M., 1991. Relationship between physical attractiveness, physical effectiveness, and self-esteem: a cross-sectional analysis among adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 14(1), 85-98.
Thornton, D. A., & Arrowood, A. J., 1966. Self-evaluation, self-enhancement, and the locus of social comparison. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1(1), 40-48.
Todo, T., Li, R., Hu, X., Mouri, T., Iwasaki, A., & Yokoo, M., 2011. Generalizing Envy-Freeness toward Group of Agents. In IJCAI Proceedings-International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 22(1), 386-393.
Twenge, J. M., 2014. Generation Me-Revised and Updated: Why Today's Young Americans Are More Confident, Assertive, Entitled--and More Miserable Than Ever Before, Simon and Schuster.
Tylka, T. L., 2015. No harm in looking, right? Men’s pornography consumption, body image, and well-being. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 16(1), 97-107.
Um, N. H., 2016. Consumers' Responses to Implicit and Explicit Gay-Themed Advertising in Gay vs. Mainstream Media. Journal of Promotion Management, 22(3), 461-477.
Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R., 2009. Leveling up and down: the experiences of benign and malicious envy. Emotion, 9(3), 419-429.
Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R., 2011. The envy premium in product evaluation. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(6), 984-998.
Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R., 2011. Why envy outperforms admiration. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(6), 784-795.
Van der Meij, L., Buunk, A. P., & Salvador, A., 2010. Contact with attractive women affects the release of cortisol in men. Hormones and Behavior, 58(3), 501-505.
VanderZee, K., Buunk, B., & Sanderman, R., 1996. The relationship between social comparison processes and personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 20(5), 551-565.
Veblen, T. T., Hadley, K. S., Nel, E. M., Kitzberger, T., Reid, M., & Villalba, R., 1994. Disturbance regime and disturbance interactions in a Rocky Mountain subalpine forest. Journal of Ecology, 82(1), 125-135.
Veblen, T., 1994. Absentee ownership: Business enterprise in recent times: The case of America (Vol. 9). Transaction Publishers.
Verhagen, M., Van Der Meij, A., Van Deurzen, P. A. M., Janzing, J. G. E., Arias-Vasquez, A., Buitelaar, J. K., & Franke, B., 2010. Meta-analysis of the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism in major depressive disorder: effects of gender and ethnicity. Molecular Psychiatry, 15(3), 260-271.
Veselka, J., Krejčí, J., Tomašov, P., Durdil, V., Riedlbauchová, L., Honěk, J., ... & Zemánek, D., 2014. Outcome of patients after alcohol septal ablation with permanent pacemaker implanted for periprocedural complete heart block. International Journal of Cardiology, 171(2), e37-e38.
Vigorito, A. J., & Curry, T. J., 1998. Marketing masculinity: Gender identity and popular magazines. Sex Roles, 39(1-2), 135-152.
Warren, C. S., & Rios, R. M., 2013. The relationships among acculturation, acculturative stress, endorsement of Western media, social comparison, and body image in Hispanic male college students. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(2), 192-201.
Weil, S. E., 2014. Rethinking the museum and other meditations, Smithsonian Institution.
White, G. L., & Mullen, P. E., 1989. Jealousy: Theory, research, and clinical strategies, Guilford Press.
White, K., & Dahl, D. W., 2006. To be or not be? The influence of dissociative reference groups on consumer preferences. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16(4), 404-414.
Widgery, R. N., & Ruch, R. S., 1981. Beauty and the Machiavellian. Communication Quarterly, 29(4), 297-301.
Wills, T. A., 1981. Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90(2), 245.
Wiseman, C. V., Sunday, S. R., & Becker, A. E., 2005. Impact of the media on adolescent body image. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14(3), 453-471.
Wood, J. V., & Wilson, A. E., 2003. How important is social comparison?. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of Self and Identity, New York: Guilford Press, 344-366.
Wood, J. V., 1989. Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological Bulletin, 106(2), 231-248.
Wood, J. V., 1996. What is social comparison and how should we study it?. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(5), 520-537.
Yoon, T. I., Thorson, E., & Lee, M. C., 2003. Body image processing in Korean adolescent and college-aged females. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 13(1), 141-161.
Yu, S. Y., & Kim, E. H., 2015. Effective Strategies to Utilize Cross-sexual Advertising Models: Focus on the Types of Advertising Appeal and Characteristics of Models. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 8(S8), 267-274.
Zaichkowsky, J. L., 1994. The personal involvement inventory: Reduction, revision, and application to advertising. Journal of Advertising, 23(4), 59-70.
Zammuner, V. L., & Fischer, A. H., 1995. The Social Regulation of Emotions in Jealousy Situations A Comparison between Italy and the Netherlands. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26(2), 189-208.
Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., & Chen, Q., 2010. Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197-206.