尷尬是一種十分常見又羞於啟齒的情緒，在人際互動的過程中扮演了重要的角色，產生尷尬的原因如：遭到批評、行為出糗、表現不如自我或他人期望等，而服務情境所強調人際接觸的特質，正是產生尷尬的必要條件，且符合社會影響理論（Social Impact Theory）的基礎。然而過去對於尷尬的研究大多以個人心理及人際互動為主，近幾年才延伸至購物行為的探討，如尷尬產品（Fost, 1996; Dahl, Manchanda, and Argo, 2001）但是大多以實體產品為主，為此本研究將實證尷尬情緒在服務情境中的影響，以社會影響理論為基礎，證實尷尬事件強度及在場人數多寡對於消費者情緒及行為反應的影響，並納入社會比較理論（Social Comparison Theory）與消費者心情等觀點，探討在場其他顧客的相關性與消費者原本心情對於消費者知覺尷尬後的情緒與行為反應的影響。
　　本研究實驗ㄧ以百貨公司服飾專櫃的消費情境為背景，透過尷尬事件強度（服務人員批評行為強弱）與在場人數多寡的操弄，發現尷尬所引起的負面情緒會中介其所採取的行為反應，當負面情緒愈強烈時，就會產生較強的離開意圖、降低再惠顧意願，並造成負面口碑效果。實驗二則驗證消費者原本心情及在場其他顧客的相關性，可以調節尷尬事件所造成的情緒及行為反應。
　　本研究最主要的貢獻包括將尷尬情緒變為研究主角、探討其他顧客對於服務接觸的影響，並驗證消費者心情在服務接觸的重要性。論文末段亦提供相關管理意涵、研究限制與未來研究方向做往後研究者參考之用。

Embarrassmet is a very common emotion but usually hard to express, which plays a very important role in social encounter. There are many reasons why people feel embarrassed, like being criticized, making a fool of oneself, performaning inferior to self or other people’s expectation, and so on. The social encounter attribute in service marketing not only is the basic condition for embarrassment but also fits the Social Impact Theory. However, most studies on embarrassment dedicated their attention to personal psychology and social encounter; few of them are about product buying behavior. Therefore this study would verify the impact of embarrassment in service encounter, test how the severity of embarrassing event and numbers of others on site influent consumers’ emotional and behavioral reaction. Besides, researcher puts social comparison theory and consumer pre-consumption mood into the study to verify the impact of consumers’ original mood and others’ relevance to consumers’ percepted embarrassment and behavioral reaction.
The research material in Experiment 1 is a story about shopping in a clothe counter in department store. Reseracher finds out that the severity of embarrassing event (the criticism from counter sales representative) and numbers of others on site have different impact on perceived embarrassment. The negative emotion arised from embarrassment mediates their behavioral reaction; the stronger the negative emotion, the stronger ther leaving intention and negative word of mouth are. In Experiment 2, researcher verifies that consumers’ pre-consumption mood and others’ relevance moderate the impact of embarrassment to consumers’emotional and behavioral reaction.
The major contribution of this study is that we put “embarrassment” as the leading role of this study and prove that one’s mood and other customers on site have impact on service encounter. In the end of this article, researcher provides managerial implication, research restriction, and the future research directions.

第一章 緒論 1
第一節 研究背景與動機 1
第二節 研究目的 4
第二章 文獻探討 5
第一節 尷尬之內涵及相關研究 5
第二節 社會影響理論及相關研究 9
第三節 社會比較理論及相關研究 11
第四節 心情的相關研究 13
第五節 調適行為及相關研究 14
第三章 研究方法 19
第一節 研究架構 19
第二節 研究假說 20
第三節 實驗一 24
第四節 實驗二 29
第四章 研究結果 35
第一節 實驗一 35
第二節 實驗二 50
第五章 討論與建議 74
第一節 研究發現與討論 74
第二節 研究貢獻 75
第三節 管理意涵 76
第四節 研究限制 77
第五節 未來研究方向 78
參考文獻 79
附錄一 本研究問卷 90
附錄二 尷尬消費經驗訪談紀錄 107

一、中文部份
林思潔，（民94），零售擁擠對消費者情緒、調適行為與滿意度之研究，中山大學企業管理研究所碩士論文
周逸衡、黃毓瑩、陳華寧、楊俊明，（2006），情緒類別及等待發生時點對等待時間知覺的影響，中山管理評論，第十四卷，第二期，487-516
黃稚倫，（2003），尷尬對消費順從意願之影響，國立中央大學企業管理研究所碩士論文
二、英文部份
Andrews, G., Tennant, C., Hewson D. M.; Vaillant, G.E., (1978), Life event stress, social support, coping style, and risk of psychological impairment, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 166(5), 307-316.
Argo, J. J., White, K., Dahl, D.W., (2006), Social Comparison Theory and Deception in the Interpersonal Exchange of Consumption Information, Journal of Consumer Research, 33, 99-108.
Babcock, M. K., (1988), Embarrassment: A window on the self. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 18, 459-483.
Babin, B., Darden W., Babin, L., (1988) Negative emotion in marketing research: Affect or artifact? Journal of Business Research, 42, 271-285.
Bagozzi, R. P., Gopinath M., Nyer, P. U., (1999), The Role of Emotions in Marketing, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 27(2), 184-206.
Baker, J., Grewal, D., and Parasuraman, A. (1987), The role of the environment in marketing services: The consumer perspective, in John A. Czepiel, Carole A. Congram and James Shanahan (Eds), The Service Challenge. Integrating for Competitive Advantage Chicago American Marketing Association.
Baron, R.M., Kenny, D.A., (1986), The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological, Journal of Pernality and Social Psychology , 51, 6, 1173-1182.
Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations
Bassett, R. L., and Latane, B. (1976), Social influences and news stories, Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
Bonnici, J., Campbell, D. P., Fredenberger, W. B., and Hunnicutt, K. H.,(1996), Consumer Issues in Coupon Usage: An Exploratory Analysis, Journal of Applied Business Research, 28, 473-481.
Buss, A.H.,(1980), Self-consciousness and Social Anxiety, San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman.
Campos, J. J., Barrett, K. C., Lamb, M. E., Goldsmith, H. H., and Stenberg, C., (1983), Socioemotional development. In M. M. Haith & J. J. Campos (Vol. Eds.), Handbook of child psychology, 2(4), 783-915, New York: Wiley.
Castefranchi, C., and Poggi, I., (1990), Blushing as a discourse: Was Darwin wrong? In W. R. Crozier (Ed.), Shyness and embarrassment: Perspective from social psychology, 207-237, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Clark, M. ,and Alice, I., (1982), Toward Understanding the Relationship Between Feeling States and Social Behavior, Cognitive Social Psychology, eds. Albert Hastorf and Alice Isen, New York: Elsevier/ North Holland, 73-108.
Crozier, R. W., (1990), Introduction. In W. R. Crozier (Ed.), Shyness and embarrassment: Perspectives from social psychology, 1-15, Cambridge, England: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Cupach, W. R., Metts, S., and Hazleton, V.,(1986), Coping with Embarrassing Predicaments: Remedial Strategies and Their perceived Utility, Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 5, 181-200.
Dahl, R.W., Manchanda, R.V., and Argo, J. J., (2001), Embarrassment in Consumer Purchase: The Role of Social Presence and Purchase Familiarity, Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 473-481
DePaulo, B. M., Kashy D. A., Kirkendol S. E, Wyer M. M., Epstein J. A., (1996), Lying in Everyday Life, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(May), 970-995.
Edelmann, R. J.,(1985), Social Embarrassment: An Analysis of the Process, Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 2, 195-213.
Edelmann, R. J., and Iwawaki, S., (1987). Self-reported Expression and Consequences of Embarrassment in the United Kingdom and Japan, Psychologia, 30, 205-216.
Edelmann, R. J.,(1987), The Psychology of Embarrassment, John Wiley & Sons.
Eroglu, S. A., and Machleit, K. A., (1990), An empirical study of retail crowding: Antecedents and consequences. Journal of Retailing, 66, 201-221.
Fedorikhin, A., and Cole, C. A., (2004), Mood Effects on Attitudes, Perceived Risk and Choice: Moderators and Mediators, Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14(1&2), 2-12.
Feldman-Barret, L., and Gross, J. J., (2001), Emotional intelligence, In T. J. Mayne, and G. A. Bonnano (Eds.), Emotions, 286-310, New York: Guilford Press.
Festinger, L., (1954), A Theory of Social Comparison Processes, Human Relations, 7, 117-140.
Folkman, S., and Lazarus, R. S., (1980), An analysis of coping in a middleaged community sample, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219-239.
Folkman, S., and Lazarus, R. S., (1981), Reply to Shinn and Krantz. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22, 457-459.
Folkman, S., and Lazarus, R. S., (1985), If it changes it must be a process: Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 150-170.
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R.S., Dunkel-Schetter, C., DeLongis, A. and Gruen R.J., (1986), Dynamics of a Stressful Encounter: Cognitive Appraisal, Coping, and Encounter Outcomes, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 5, 992-1003.
Fost, D. (1996), No Thanks, I’m Just Browsing, American Demographic, 18(9)m 25-27.
Foxall, G.R., and Greenley G.E., (1999), Consumers’ Emotional Responses to Service Environments, Journal of Business Research, 46, 149-158.
Frijda, N. H., (1993), The place of appraisal in emotion, Cognition & Emotion, 7, 3 & 4, 357 - 387
Gardner, M. P. ,and Hill, R. P., (1988), Consumers’ Mood State Antecedents and Consequence of Experiential versus Information Strategies for Brand Choice, Psychology & Marketing, 5(2), 169-182.
Gardner, M. P., (1985) Mood State and Consumer Behavior: A Critical Review, Journal of Consumer Research, 12, 281-300.
Gerard, H. B., Wilhelmy, R. A., and ConoUey, E. S., (1968), Conformity and group size, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8,79-82.
Goffman, E., (1956), Embarrassment and Social Organization, The American Journal of Sociology, 62(3), 264-271.
Goffman, E., (1967), Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-face Behavior, Garden City, NY: Anchor.
Goffman, E., (1971), Relations in Public, New York: Basic Book
Glodberg, M. E. and Gorn, G. J., (1987), Happy and Sad TV Programs: How They Affect Reactions to Commercials, Journal of Consumer Research, 14, 387-403.
Grace, D., (2007), How Embarrassing! An Exploratory Study of Critical Incidents Including Affective Reactions, Journal of Service Research, 9(3), 271-284.
Griffitt, W., Guay, P.(1969), Object” evaluation and conditioned affect, Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 4, 1-8.
Griffitt, W., and Veitech, R.,(1971), Hot and Crowded: Influences of Population Density and Temperature on Interpersonal Affective Behavior, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 1, 92-98.
Halberstadt, A. G., and Green, L. R., (1993), Social attention and placation theories of blushing, Motivation and Emotion, 17:11, 53-64, Springer.
Harrell, G. D., Hutt, M. D., and Anderson, J. C., (1980), Path analysis of buyer behavior under conditions of crowding, Journal of Marketing Research, 17, 45-51.
Hass, R. G., (1981), Effects of source characteristics on cognitive responses and persuasion, In R. E. Petty, T. M. Ostrom, & T. C. Brock (Eds.), Cognitive responses in persuasion (pp.14N172). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Heskett, J.L. (1987), Lessons in the service sector, Harvard Business Review, 65, 118-126.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy Theory: A Theory Relating to Self and Affect, Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.
Higuchi, M, and Fukada, H, (2002), A Comparison of Four Causal Factors of Embarrassment in Public and Private Situations, The Journal of Psychology, 136(4), 399-406.
Iacobucci, D. , Calder, B.J., Malthouse, E. C., and Dulachek, A., (2002), Psychological, Marketing, Physical, and Sociological Factors Affecting Attitudes and Behavioral Intentions for Customers Resisting the Purchase of an Embarrassing Product, Advances in Consumer Research, 30, 236.
Isen(1984), Toward Understanding the Role of cognition, eds. Robert Wyer, Jr. and Thomas Srull, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 179-236.
Jackson, J. M., (1986), In defense of social impact theory: Comment on Mullen, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 511-513.
Jackson, J. M., and Latane, B., (1981a), All alone in front of all those people: Stage fright as a function of number and type of co-performance and audience, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 73-85.
Jackson, J. M., and Latane, B., (1981b), Strength and number of solicitors and the urge toward altruism, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 415-422.
Keltner, D., and Buswell, B. (1996), Evidence for the Distinctness of Embarrassment, Shame, and Guilt: A Study of Recalled Antecedents and Facial Expressions of Emotion, Cognition and Emotion, W, 155-172.
Keltner, D., & Stoey, L. (1996), Embarrassment and Responses to Condom Education, Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Berkeley, Department of Psychology.
Kelner, D. and Buswell, B. N., (1997) Embarrassment: It’s Distinct Form and Appeasement Functions, Psychological Bulletion, 122(3) 250-270.
Klass, E. T., (1990), Guilt, Shame, and Embarrassment: Cognitive Behavioral Approaches, In Handbook of Social and Evaluation Anxiety, H. Leitenberg, ed. New York: Plenham, 385-414.
Knowles, E. S., (1980), An affiliative conflict theory of personal and group spatial behavior. In P. Paulus (Ed.), The psychology of group influence, 133-188, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Latane, B., (1981), The psychology of social impact, American Psychologist, 36, 343-356.
Latane, B., and Nida, S., (1980), Social impact theory and group influence: A social engineering perspective, In P. Paulus (Ed.), The psychology of group influence , 3-34, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Leary, M. R., and Meadow, S., (1991), Predictors, Elicitors, and Concomitants of Social Blushing, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 254-262.
Levin, J., and Arluke, A., (1982), Embarrassment and helping behavior, Psychological Reports, 51, 999-1002.
Lewis, M. (1993). Self-conscious emotions: Embarrassment, Pride, Shame, and Guilt, In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of Emotions, 353-364, New York: Guilford Press.
Lewis, M., Stanger, C., Sullivan, M. W., and Barone, R (1991), Changes In Embarrassment As a Function of Age, Sex, and Situation, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 485-492.
Liljander, V., and Mattsson, J., (2002), Impact of Customer Preconsumption Mood on the Evaluation of Employee Behavior in Service Encounters, Psychology & Marketing, 19(10), 837-860.
Luomala, H. T., (1998), A mood-alleviative perspective on self-gift behaviors: Stimulating consumer behavior theory development, Journal of Marketing Management, 14, 109-132.
Luomala, H. T., and Laaksonen M., (2000), Contribution from Mood Research, Psychology & Marketing, 17(3), 195-233.
Mattila, A, and Wirtz, J., (2000), The Role of Preconsumption Affect in Postpurchase Evaluation of Services, Psychology & Marketing, 587-605.
Mattila, A. S., and Enz C.A., (2002), The Role of Emotion in Service Encounters, Journal of Service Research, 4(4), 268-277
Manstead , A. S. R. ,and Semin, G. R.,(1981), Social transgressions, social perspectives, and social emotionality, Motivation and Emotion, 249-261, Springer Netherlands
Metts, S. and Cupach, W. R. (1989), Situational Influence on the Use of Remedial Strategies in Embarrassing Predicaments, Communication Monographs, 151-162
Milgram, S., Bickman, L., and Berkowitz, L. (1969), Note on the drawing power of crowds of different size, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 79-82.
Miller, R. S. (1996), Embarrassment: Poise and Peril in Everyday Life, New York: Guilford Press.
Miller, R. S. (1995), “On the Nature of embarrassability: Shyness, social evaluation, and social skill,” Journal of Personality, 63, 315-339.
Miller, R. S., and Leary, M. R. (1992), Social Sources and Interactive Functions of Embarrassment, In M. Clark (Ed.), Emotion and Social Behavior, 322-339, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Miller, R. S. (1992), The nature and severity of self-reported embarrassing circumstances, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 190-198.
Miller, R. S., and Tangney, J. P. (1994), Differentiating Embarrassment From Shame, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13, 273-287.
Modigliani, A. (1968), Embarrassment and Embarrassability, Sociometry, 31(3), 313-326.
Modigliani, A. (1971), Embarrassment, Facework, and Eye Contact: Testing a Theory of Embarrassment, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 15-24.
Mullen, B. (1985), Strength and immediacy of sources: A meta-analytic evaluation of the forgotten elements of social impact theory, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1458-1466.
Mullen, B. (1986), Effects of strength and immediacy in group contexts: Reply to Jackson, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 514-516.
Parrott, W.G., Sabini, J., and Silver, M. (1988), The Roles of self-esteem and social interaction in embarrassment, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 191-202.
Parrott, W. G. and Smith, S. F. (1991), Embarrassment: Actual vs. Typical Cases and Classical vs. Prototypical Representations, Cognition and Emotion, 5, 467-488.
Pelham, B. W., and Wachsmuth, J. O., (1995), The Waxing and Waning of the Social Srlf: Assimilation and Contrast in Social Comparison, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 825-838.
Peterson, R. ,and Sauber, M., (1983), A Mood Scale for Survey Research, in Proceedings of the American Marketing Association’s Educators Conference, American Marketing Association, ed, Chicago: American Marketing Association, 409-414.
Sattler, J. M., (1965), A Theoretical, Development, and Clinical Investigation of Embarrassment, Genetic Psychology Monographs, 17, 19-59.
Sattler, J. M., (1966), Embarrassment and Blushing: A Theoretical Review, Journal of Social Psychology, 69, 117-133.
Schlenker, B. R., (1980), Impression Management: The Self-concept, Social Identity, and Interpersonal Relations, Monterey, CA: Brooks/ Cole Publishing.
Schlenker, B. R. and Darby, B. W., (1981), The Use of Apologies in Social Predicaments, Social Psychology Quarterly, 44, 271-278.
Schlenker, B. R. and Leary, M. R. (1982), Social Psychology and Self-presentation: A Conceptualization and Model, Psychological Bulletin, 92, 641-669.
Sedikides, C., and Jackson, J. M., (1990), Social Impact Theory: A Field Test of Source Strength, Source Immediacy and Number of Targets, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 11(3), 273-281.
Semin, G. R., & Papadopoulou, K. (1990), The Acquisition of Reflexive Social Emotions: The Transmission and Reproduction of Social Control Through Joint Action, In G. Duveen & B. Lloyd (Eds.), Social Representations and the Development of Knowledge, 107-125, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Sharkey, W. F., and Stafford, L., (1990), Responses to Embarrassment, Human Communication Research, 17(2), 315-342.
Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., and O'Connor, C. (1987), Emotion Knowledge: Further Exploration of a Prototype Approach, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1061-1086.
Shott, S., (1979), Emotion and Social Life: A Symbolic Interactionist Analysis, American Journal of Sociology, 84, 1317-1334.
Sugawara, K. (1992), A study on embarrassment in new role situation: Using
the data from university students at their probation in nursery school for the first time, Communication and Society (Bulletin of Edogawa University), 2, 31-39.
Tangney, J. P., (1995), Shame and Guilt in Interpersonal Relationships, In J. P. Tangney, and K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Self-conscious Emotions, 114-139, New York: Guilford Press.
Tangney, J. P., Miller, R. S., Flicker, L., and Barlow, D. H. (1996), Are Shame, Guilt, and Embarrassment Distinct Emotions? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1256-1264.
Tedeschi, J., and Riess, M., (1981), Verbal Strategies in Impression Management, In C. Antaki (Ed.), The Psychology of Ordinary Explanations of Social Behavior, 271-309, New York: Academic Press.
Tesser, A., and Collins, J. E., (1988), Emotion in Social Reflection and Comparison Situations: Intuitive, Systematic, and Exploratory Approaches, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(5), 695-709.
Tomkins, S. S. (1963), Affect, Imagery, Consciousness, Vol. 2: The Negative Affects, New York: Springer.
Verbeke, W., and Bagozzi, R. P., (2002), A Situational Analysis on How Salespeople Experience and Cope with Shame and Embarrassment, Psychology and Marketing, 19(9), 713-741.
Verbeke, W., and Bagozzi, R. P., (2003), Exploring the role of self- and customer- provoked embarrassment in personal selling, International Journal of Research in Marketing, 20, 233-258
Wheeler, L. (1966), Motivation as a Determinant of Upward Comparisons, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1, suppl.,27-31