近年來，越來越多英語教學領域的研究已証實語言學習與批判思考有著密不可分的關係。在實際的英語交流情境中，溝通者除了須展現會話溝通能力以外，也須運用議論技巧以表達個人意見、提出不同觀點或針對議題提出可行的解決方案。目前許多國家的高等教育都將增進學生英語溝通能力與批判思考能力視為教育目標，因應此趨勢，本研究有三個主要的研究目的。第一個目的是從任務型教學法觀點提出一結合議論式口說任務與批判思考的教學方法，並將此方法運用於大學英語聽說課程，以提昇學生的英語口說議論能力。第二個目的是設計一結合批判思考的口說測驗，並建立評量計分標準來測量學生的英語口說議論能力。第三個目的是檢視本研究所提出的教學方法對學生批判思考以及英語口說議論能力的影響，並進一步分析學生在以英語口說方式建構論點時所遭遇之因難。

研究對象為南台灣某醫學大學修習大一英語聽說課程的38位新生。在為期9週的教學干預中(共有兩次教學干預)，每一次教學干預的任務活動主要分為兩階段進行。此二階段的教學任務活動著重五種議論技能訓練，包含:（一）意見表達、（二）推論、（三）論述分析（正反意見分析）、（四）論述建構、（五）問題解決，以及明確的批判思考技能訓練。本研究採用單組前後測設計，透過量性研究方法驗證所提出之教學方法的有效性，並以質性研究方法分析學生在進行議論性口說任務時所面臨的困難。本研究採用「修訂版華格批判思考量表」以及研究者所設計的「英語議論式口說測驗」來進行研究資料的蒐集，透過成對樣本t檢定來進行研究資料的分析，評估受試者在批判思考和議論式英語口說能力上的進展。此外，為了解受試者在進行議論性口說任務時所面臨的困難，本研究也針對學生在「英語議論式口說測驗」上的作答反應進行問題歸類與分析。

研究結果發現:儘管受試者在「修訂版華格批判思考量表」並沒有顯著的得分改善，但在兩單元「英語議論式口說測驗」的總分以及三個主要評分向度包含 「發音」、「語言運用」和「任務完成度」的得分皆有進步。這些進展也證實了結合議論式口說任務及批判思考的教學方法能有效增進學習者的批判思考及英語口說議論技能。此外，從學生作答「英語議論式口說測驗」的反應，可歸納出受試者有以下常見的困難：（1）因發音、詞彙和語法結構的問題而阻礙其論述;（2）以重複表達作為一種論證的方式;（3）缺乏提出證據或實例以支持自己論點; （4）直接跳躍到的細節;（5）缺乏提出替代性解決方案的能力。

本研究的結論為:英語學習者需學習議論和批判思考技能以構建具邏輯性、具說服力的論述，而議論及批判思考技能的學習也有助於提昇英語學習者的口說能力。以發展學生議論性口說能力為目的的英語教學，不僅應把重點放在提昇學生語言能力、增進學生對所討論議題的認識，同時也應培養學生批判思考及議論技能。最後，本研究也提出未來研究的建議與研究的限制。

Recent research in the area of EFL (English as a Foreign Language) and ESL (English as a Second Language) education have supported critical thinking (CT) is related to learner’s development of language skills. In real English communication contexts, the speaker has to exert not only conversational or transactional competence as well as the skills to express opinions, present different points of view or provide solutions for a controversial issue. Responding to the need to enhance students’ English oral communication and CT skills, this study served three major purposes. The first purpose was to propose a teaching method incorporating argument-based tasks and CT into an existing university EFL listening/speaking syllabus to enhance EFL/ESL students’ argumentative speaking. The second purpose was to design an assessment and established analytical scoring rubrics to evaluate students’ argumentative speaking skills in English. The third purpose was to investigate the impact of the proposed teaching method on students’ CT and argumentative speaking skills and to further understand students’ difficulties in constructing spoken argumentation.

A total of 38 students from two university English intact classes in southern Taiwan participated in the study. During the 9-week teaching interventions (Teaching Intervention I & II), two stages of tasks addressing five types of argumentative speaking skills, involving (a) opinion-expressing, (b) inference-making, (c) argument-analyzing (analysis of pros and cons), (d) persuasive argument, (e) problem-solving and the explicit instruction of CT skills were conducted. Two measures including the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal Form Zm (WGCTA-Zm) and the Argumentative Speaking tests (AST) were used to assess participants’ progress in CT and argumentative speaking skills. The results from the pretest-posttest one-group design were evaluated by paired-sample t-tests. Besides, to understand participants’ difficulties in doing English argumentative speaking tasks, students’ responses to the pre-tests and post-tests of ASTs were examined. Similar problems which repeatedly appeared on the participants’ responses were categorized and analyzed.

The results showed that in spite of no significant score improvement in the adopted CT skills test (WGCTA-Zm), close examinations over participants’ performance in two units of the AST found that students made progress in three dimensions of the argumentative speaking skills—“delivery”, “language use” and “task accomplishment”. The improvements also confirmed a positive effect of the implemented instruction on learners’ speaking skills and CT demonstrated through their performance on task accomplishment subscale. Besides, analyses of students’ difficulties in responding to the argumentative speaking tasks revealed participants tended to (1) make pronunciation, lexical and grammatical errors; (2) use repetitions of expressions as a way of argumentation; (3) give arguments without providing elaborated details, supporting evidence or example(s); (4) skip general ideas but jump directly to the details; and (5) address a problem without providing alternative solution(s). The study concluded that EFL/ESL learners need to be taught argumentative and CT skills to construct logical and persuasive spoken argumentation and achieve a higher level of language proficiency. The instruction aiming at developing students’ argumentative speaking abilities in English should be focused on enhancing students’ linguistic competence, understanding of the topic/issue, as well as cultivating CT and argumentative skills. Finally, the limitations of the present study and suggestions for future research were presented.

Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..i
Chinese abstract 中文摘要………….………………………………………………………..…………………………………..ii
English abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …iv
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Rationale of the study 1
1.2 Purposes and Research Questions of the Study 4
Chapter 2 Literature Review 6
2.1 Critical thinking 6
2.2 Controversy about critical thinking 8
2.3 Teaching critical thinking in ESL/EFL Classrooms 8
2.4 Assessment of critical thinking in ESL/EFL language classrooms 11
2.5 Task-based learning approach to teaching ELT 15
2.6 Task-based learning approach to teaching speaking 17
2.7 Task-based learning approach to assessing English speaking 18
Chapter 3 Methodology 22
3.1 Participants of the study and the setting 22
3.2 Research procedures 22
3.2.1 Design of course contents and teaching procedures 23
3.2.2 Design of Argumentative Speaking tests 29
3.2.3 Development of scoring rubrics for the Argumentative Speaking Test 33
3.3 Research design 40
3.4 Data collection and analysis 44
3.4.1 The revised Chinese version of Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal: Form Zm (WCTA-Zm) 44
3.4.2Argumentative Speaking tests (AST) 45
Chapter 4: Results & Discussions 57
4.1 Critical Thinking Skills Test 57
4.1.1 Discussions 58
4.2 Argumentative Speaking Tests (ASTs) 60
4.2.1 Students’ performance on AST 1 60
4.2.2 Students’ performance on AST 2 61
4.2.3 Cross examination of students’ performance on AST 1 and AST 2 62
4.2.4 Students’ performance in the subscale of task accomplishment of the AST 64
4.2.5 Discussions 69
4.3 Students’ struggles in doing the Argumentative Speaking Tests 72
4.3.1 Lexical and grammatical difficulties 73
4.3.2 Difficulties in doing argumentative speaking tasks 74
4.3.3 Discussions 78
Chapter 5: Conclusions and suggestions for future research 83
5.1 Conclusions 83
5.2 Limitations of the study and suggestions for future studies 85
Bibliography 86
Appendix A_Course contents_Unit 8 98
Appendix A_Course contents_Unit 10 107
Appendix B: CT handouts 113
Appendix C: Assignment 124
Appendix D: Two Argumentative Speaking test samples 129
Appendix E_references for answering the Argument-based Speaking Test 1 133
Appendix F: Scoring rubrics for Argumentative Speaking Test 141
Appendix G: the revised Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal: Form Zm (WCTA-ZM) 146

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