本質化研究採用紮根研究方法來分析實際的衝突經驗，藉以探索日常生活中的衝突
解決方式。研究資料為來自於20 個不同國家的53 名研究生的衝突經驗，其中男性
27 名、女性26 名。經由仔細的編碼，發現了七種不同的類目，每一個類目各有多個
子類目。本研究套用多元分析模式，發現「解決衝突的事前準備」扮演著相當重要
的角色，是為核心項目。 此外，本研究也一一探討其他六個類目和核心類目的關係
以及這些類目彼此間的關係，這六個類目分別為衝突起緣、衝突原因、情境因素、
干擾因素、解決策略及結果。藉由這些關係的探索得以發展出一套有關日常生活衝
突解決過程的理論模式，研究中針對模式的發展舉出許多實際的的例子加以說明。
最後，本文進一步探討了未來相關研究走向及對於實務中衝突解決的啟發。

This qualitative study explored conflict resolutions in everyday setting by applying
grounded theory method to data on real-life conflict experiences. The data represent 53
graduate students (27 male and 26 female) of 20 different nationalities. After careful coding,
we found seven categories. By applying a dimensional analysis model, we not only
identified that ─preparation for resolving conflict∥ is the central phenomenon but also
explored how conflict origins, casual condition, contextual condition, intervening condition,
resolution strategies and consequences are related to the central phenomenon and the
dynamics among themselves. This helped in developing a grounded formal theory that
provide a detailed picture of the complex process of conflict resolution in everyday setting
by covering its origins, dynamics, resolution strategies, consequences, and effects in
different contexts. Detailed explanations with ample examples from the data were provided.
Implications for future researchers and practical implications are discussed.

Thesis Approval Sheet………………………………………………………………...……i
Acknowledgement………………………………………..……………………………...…ii
摘要……………………..…………………..……………...………………………………iii
Abstract…………………………….………………………………………………………iv
Table of Contents……………………………………………………….…………….……v
List of Tables………………………………………………………………...……..…...…ix
List of Figures…………………………………………………….……………..…...…..…x
Chapter 1 Introduction…………………………………………………….………………1
1.1 Background……………………………………………………….……………………1
1.2 Research Motivation and Purpose………………………………...……………………3
1.3 Structure of the Thesis……………………………………………………..…..………5
Chapter 2 Literature Review…………………………………………...…………………7
2.1 Classification of Conflict………………………………………………………………7
2.2 Communication and Conflict……………………………………………..……………9
2.3 Factors That Make Conflict Easy or Difficult to Manage……………………….……10
2.4 Conflict Process Models………………………………………………………...……11
2.5 Strategies for Conflict Resolution……………………...…………………..…………18
2.6 Overview of Grounded Theory ………………………………………………………24
Chapter 3 Conceptual Framework………………………………………………………27
3.1 Substantive Conceptual Framework of Conflict Resolution Process……………...…27
3.1.1 Conflict Types…………………………………………………………………28
3.1.2 Antecedent Conditions……………………………...…………………………29
3.1.3 Resolution Strategies…………………………………………..………………30
3.1.4 Third-Party Interventions……………………………………...………………31
3.1.5 Communication………………………………………………………..………31
3.1.6 Conflict Outcomes………………………………………………….…………32
Chapter 4 Research Methodology and Analysis…………………………………..……34
4.1 Data Collection…………………………………………………………………..……34
4.1.1 Source of Data………...…………………………………….…………………34
4.1.2 Data Collection Process – Theoretical Sampling……………………...………37
4.1.3 Final Data Sample……………………………………………...……...………39
4.2 Grounded Theory Analysis……………………………………………………...……40
4.3 Open Coding………………………………………………….………………………40
4.3.1 Unitization Stage – Key Point Coding………………………………...………41
4.3.2 Conceptual Labels………………………………………………………..……43
4.3.3 Categorization…………………………………………………………………43
4.3.4 Constant Comparison………………………………………………….………44
4.4 Axial Coding……………………………………………………………….…………45
4.4.1 Assembling into Broader Categories……………………………………….…45
4.4.2 Assembling into Much Broader Categories…………………………...………46
4.4.3 Summary of Axial Coding Stage…………………………………………...…47
4.5 Selective Coding…………………………………………………………...…………49
4.6 Validity and Reliability of Grounded Theory Analysis………………………………53
4.6.1 Credibility - Internal Validity…………………………………………………54
4.6.2 Transferability - External Validity…………………………………….………55
4.6.3 Dependability – Reliability……………………………………………………56
Chapter 5 Research Findings and Discussion……………………………………..……62
5.1 Central Phenomenon…………………………………………………………….……63
5.1.1 Examine the Situation……………………………………..…..………………65
5.1.2 Gather Information ……………………………………………………………68
5.1.3 Prioritize the Needs ……………………………………………………...……71
5.1.4 Search for Alternatives……………………………………………...…………73
5.2 Conflict Origins…………………………………………………………………….…76
5.3 Causal Conditions ……………………………………………………………………79
5.4 Contextual Conditions……………………………………………………...…………83
5.5 Intervening Conditions……………………………………………………..…………86
5.6 Strategies ………………………………………………….……………….…………91
5.7 Consequences…………………………………………………………………..……..98
5.8 Dimensional Analysis Model for Conflict Resolutions in Everyday Setting ………104
5.8.1 Description of the Model………………………..…………………..……….105
5.8.2 Relationship between Conflict Origins, Causal Conditions, and Central
Phenomenon…………………………….………..………………………..…108
5.8.3 Relationship between Central Phenomenon and Strategies………….....……110
5.8.4 Relationship between Contextual Conditions, Intervening Conditions, and
Strategies…………………….……………………………………….………111
5.8.5 Relationship between Strategies and Consequences…………………………113
5.8.6 Summary of the Model………………………………………………….……114
5.9 Discussion……………………………………………………………...……………115
Chapter 6 Conclusion
6.1 Summary…………………………………………………………………….………124
6.2 Contributions to the Academic Field………………………….……….……………125
6.3 Practical Implications……………………………..…..…………………...…...……127
6.4 Limitations……………………………...………………………………...…………129
6.5 Future Research………………………………………………………..……………130
References……………………………………………………………….….……………132
Appendix: List of All Categories and their Definitions…………………………….……143

Adejimola, A. S. (2009). Language and communication in conflict resolution. Journal of Law and Conflict Resolution, 1(1).
Amason, A. C. (1996). Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision making: Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal.
Annells, M. (1997). Grounded theory method, part I: within the five moments of qualitative research. Nursing Inquiry, 4(2).
Antonioni, D. (1998). Relationship between the big five personality factors and conflict management styles. International Journal of Conflict Management, 9(4).
Aritzeta, A., Ayestaran, S., & Swailes, S. (2005). Team role preference and conflict management styles. International Journal of Conflict Management, 16(2).
Bagshaw, M. (1998). Conflict management and mediation: key leadership skills for the millennium. Industrial and Commercial Training, 30(6).
Bell, M., & Forde, D. R. (1999). A Factorial Survey of Interpersonal Conflict Resolution. Journal of Social Psychology, 139(3).
Bercovitch, J., & Rubin, J. Z. (1992). Mediation in international relations: St. Martin's Press in association with the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues.
Bettenhausen, K. L. (1991). Five Years of Groups Research: What We Have Learned and What Needs to be Addressed. Journal of Management, 17(2).
Blitman, B. A. (2002). Conflict Resolution Techniques. Commercial Law Bulletin, 17(4).
Bonoma, T. V. (1985). Case research in marketing: opportunities, problems, and a process. Journal of marketing research.
Brahnam, S. D., Margavio, T. M., Hignite, M. A., Barrier, T. B., & Chin, J. M. (2005). A gender-based categorization for conflict resolution. Journal of Management Development, 24(3).
Brewer, N., Mitchell, P., & Weber, N. (2002). Gender role, organizational status, and conflict management styles. International Journal of Conflict Management, 13(1).
Carnevale, P. J. D., & Pegnetter, R. (1985). The selection of mediation tactics in public sector disputes: A contingency analysis. Journal of Social Issues, 41(2).
Cetin, M. O., & Hacifazlioglu, O. (2004). Conflict Management Styles: A Comparative Study of University Academics and High School Teachers. Journal of American Academy of Business, 5(1/2).
Chan, C. C. A., Monroe, G., Ng, J., & Tan, R. (2006). Conflict Management Styles of Male and Female Junior Accountants. International Journal of Management, 23(2).
Charmaz, K. (2000). Grounded Theory Methodology: Objectivist and Constructivist Qualitative Methods. In N. K. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd ed., pp. 509-535). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Chen, G., & Tjosvold, D. (2002). Conflict management and team effectiveness in China: The mediating role of justice. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 19(4), 557-572.
Coser, L. (1956). The functions of social conflict. New York: Free Press.
Cosier, R. A. (1978). The effects of three potential aids for making strategic decisions on prediction accuracy. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 22(2), 295-306.
Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Darling, J. R., & Fogliasso, C. E. (1999). Conflict management across cultural boundaries: a case analysis from a multinational bank. European Business Review, 99(6), 383-392.
Darling, J. R., & Walker, W. E. (2001). Effective conflict management: use of the behavioral style model. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 22(5), 230-242.
DeChurch, L. A., & Marks, M. A. (2001). Maximizing the benefits of task conflict: the role of conflict management. International Journal of Conflict Management, 12(1), 4-22.
Delerue, H. (2005). Conflict resolution mechanisms, trust and perception of conflict in contractual agreements. Journal of General Management, 30(4), 11-26.
Derr, C. B. (1978). Managing Organizational Conflict: Collaboration, Bargaining, and Power Approaches. California Management Review, 21(2), 76-83.
Deutsch, M. (1973). The resolution of conflict. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Drory, A., & Ritov, I. (1997). Effects of work experience and opponent’s power on conflict management styles. International Journal of Conflict Management, 8(2), 148-161.
Earnest, G. W., & McCaslin, N. L. (1994). Extension Administrators Approach to Conflict Management: A Study of Relationships Between Conflict Management Styles and Personality Type. Journal of Agricultural Education, 35(3), 18-22.
Elliott, N., & Lazenbatt, A. (2005). How to recognise a'quality'grounded theory research study. The Australian journal of advanced nursing: a quarterly publication of the Royal Australian Nursing Federation, 22(3), 48.
Ellram, L. M. (1996). The use of the case study method in logistics research. Journal of Business Logistics, 17(2), 93-138.
Elsayed-Ekhouly, S. M., & Buda, R. (1996). Organizational conflict: a comparative analysis of conflict styles across cultures. International Journal of Conflict Management, 7(1), 71-81.
Filley, A. C. (1975). Interpersonal conflict resolution. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman Glenview, IL.
Filley, A. C. (1978). Some Normative Issues in Conflict Management. California Management Review, 21(2), 61-66.
Folger, J. P., Hewes, D. E., & Poole, M. S. (1984). Coding social interaction. Progress in communication sciences, 4, 115-161.
Friedman, R. A., Tidd, S. T., Currall, S. C., & Tsai, J. C. (2000). What goes around comes around: the impact of personal conflict style on work conflict and stress. International Journal of Conflict Management, 11(1), 32-55.
Fritchie, R., & Leary, M. (1998). Resolving Conflicts in Organizations. London: Lemos & Crane.
Glaser, B. G. (1978). Theoretical Sensitivity. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.
Glaser, B. G. (1992). Basics of grounded theory analysis: emergence vs forcing: Sociology Press.
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research: Aldine de Gruyter.
Goodwin, J. (2002). Auditors’ Conflict Management Styles: An Exploratory Study. Abacus, 38(3), 378-405.
Greenhalgh, L. (1986). SMR forum: Managing conflict. Sloan Management Review, 27(4), 45-51.
Hall, J. (1969). Conflict Management Survey: A survey of one's characteristic reaction to and handling conflict between himself and others. Conroe, TX: Telemetrics International.
Havenga, W. (2006). Relationships between Gender/Age–Status Differences and Conflict Management Styles in Small Business. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 6(1), 22-28.
Hener, G. (2010). Communication And Conflict Management in Local Public Organizations Transylvanian Review of Administrative Sciences, 30, 132-142.
Hignite, M. A., Margavio, T. M., & Chin, J. M. (2002). Assessing the Conflict Resolution Profiles of Emerging Information Systems Professionals. Journal of Information Systems Education, 13(4), 315-324.
Hirschman, C. (2001). Order in the hear. HR Magazine, 46(7), 58-64.
Hocker, J. L., & Wilmot, W. W. (1985). Interpersonal Conflict (2nd Edition ed.). Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
Holsti, O. R. (1969). Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities.
Jehn, K. A. (1995). A Multimethod Examination of the Benefits and Detriments of Intragroup Conflict. Administrative science quarterly, 40(2), 256-282.
Jones, T. E., & White, C. S. (1985 ). Relationships Among Personality, Conflict Resolution Styles, and Task Effectiveness. Group & Organization Studies, 10(2), 152-167.
Kahai, S. S., & Cooper, R. B. (1999). The effect of computer-mediated communication on agreement and acceptance. Journal of Management Information Systems, 165-188.
Kahai, S. S., & Cooper, R. B. (2003). Exploring the core concepts of media richness theory: The impact of cue multiplicity and feedback immediacy on decision quality. Journal of Management Information Systems, 20(1), 263-300.
Kersten, G. E. (2008). Negotiations and E-negotiations: People, Models, and Systems. unpublished book
King, W. C. J., & Miles, E. W. (1990). What we know – and don't know – about measuring conflict – An examination of the ROCI-II and the OCCI conflict instruments. Management Communication Quarterly, 4(2), 222-243.
Knapp, M. L., Putnam, L. L., & Davis, L. J. (1988). Measuring interpersonal conflict in organizations: where do we go from here? Management Communication Quarterly, 1(3), 414-429.
Kozan, M. K. (2002). Subcultures and Conflict Management Style. Management International Review, 42(1), 89-104.
Krauss, R. M., & Morsella, E. (2000). Communication and conflict. The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice, 131-143.
Lai, H. (2012). Conflict Communication Retrieved 27.03.2012, from http//www.negogo.org/negotiation
Lai, H., Doong, H. S., Kao, C. C., & Kersten, G. E. (2006). Negotiators' communication, perception of their counterparts, and performance in dyadic e-negotiations. Group Decision and Negotiation, 15(5), 429-447.
Lee Agee, M., & Kabasakal, H. E. (1993). Exploring Conflict Resolution Styles: A Study of Turkish and American University Business Students. International Journal of Social Economics 20(9), 3-14.
Lewicki, R. J., Barry, B., & Saunders, D. M. (2010). Negotiation. Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Lewicki, R. J., Saunders, D. M., Barry, B., & Minton, J. W. (2003). Essentials of Negotiation. Singapore: McGrawHill Publishers.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry (Vol. 75): Sage Publications, Inc.
Locke, K. (1996). Rewriting the discovery of grounded theory after 25 years? Journal of Management Inquiry, 5(3), 239-245.
Lovelace, K., Shapiro, D. L., & Weingart, L. R. (2001). Maximizing cross-functional new product teams' innovativeness and constraint adherence: a conflict communications perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 44(4), 779-793.
Martin, P. Y., & Turner, B. A. (1986). Grounded theory and organizational research. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 22(2), 141-157.
McKenna, S., & Richardson, J. (1995). Business values, management and conflict handling: issues in contemporary Singapore. Journal of Management Development, 14(4), 56-70.
Mentzer, J. T., & Flint, D. J. (1997). Validity in logistics research. Journal of Business Logistics, 18(1), 199-216.
Mitchell, C. R., & Webb, K. (1988). New approaches to international mediation: Greenwood Pub Group.
Moberg, P. J. (2001). Linking conflict strategy to the five-factor model: Theoretical and empirical foundations. International Journal of Conflict Management, 12(1), 47-68.
Morrow, S. L., & Smith, M. L. (1995). Constructions of survival and coping by women who have survived childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42(1), 24.
Onions, P. E. W. (2006). Grounded theory application in reviewing knowledge management literature, from http://www.lmu.ac.uk/research/postgradconf/papers/Patrick_Onions_paper.pdf
Pelled, L. H., Eisenhardt, K. M., & Xin, K. R. (1999). Exploring the black box: An analysis of work group diversity, conflict and performance. Administrative science quarterly, 44(1), 1-28.
Phillips, E., & Cheston, R. (1979). Conflict Resolution: What Works? California Management Review, 21(4), 76-83.
Pidgeon, N., & Henwood, K. (1996). Grounded theory: practical implementation. In J. E. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Qualitative Research methods for Psychology and the Social Sciences (pp. 95). Leicester: British Psychological Society.
Pondy, L. R. (1967). Organizational Conflict: Concepts and Models. Administrative science quarterly, 12(2).
Pruitt, D. G., & Rubin, J. Z. (1986). Social conflict: Escalation, stalemate and settlement. New York: Random House.
Purdy, J. M., Nye, P., & Balakrishnan, P. (2000). The impact of communication media on negotiation outcomes. International Journal of Conflict Management, 11(2), 162-187.
Putnam, L. L., & Poole, M. S. (1987). Conflict and negotiation.
Rahim, M. A. (1983). A measure of styles of handling interpersonal conflict. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 368-376.
Rahim, M. A. (1992). Managing Conflict in Organizations. USA: Praeger Publishers.
Rahim, M. A. (2002). Toward a theory of managing organizational conflict. The International Journal of Conflict Management, 13(3).
Rahim, M. A., & Bonoma, T. V. (1979). Managing Organizational Conflict: A Model for Diagnosis and Intervention. Psychological Reports, 44.
Rubin, J. Z., & Issues, S. f. t. P. S. o. S. (1981). Dynamics of third party intervention: Kissinger in the Middle East: Praeger New York.
Seidel, S., & Recker, J. C. (2009). Using grounded theory for studying business process management phenomena.
Shedrack, G. B. (2004). Introduction to Peace and Conflict Studies in West Africa. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Simons, T. (1993). Speech patterns and the concept of utility in cognitive maps: The case of integrative bargaining. Academy of Management Journal, 139-156.
Srnka, K. J., & Koeszegi, S. T. (2007). From words to numbers: how to transform qualitative data into meaningful quantitative results. SBR, 59, 29-57.
Stern, P. N. (1994). Eroding grounded theory. In J. M. Morse (Ed.), Critical issues in qualitative research methods (pp. 212 -223). London: Sage.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Suddaby, R. (2006). From the editors: What grounded theory is not. The Academy of Management Journal ARCHIVE, 49(4), 633-642.
Thomas, K. W. (1977). Toward Multi-Dimensional Values in Teaching: The Example of Conflict Behaviors. Academy of Management Review, 2(3), 484-490.
Thomas, K. W. (1992). Conflict and negotiation processes in organizations. In M. D. Dunnette & L. H. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial & organizational psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 651-718). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Thomas, K. W., & Kilmann, R. H. (1974). Thomas-Kilmann conflict mode survey. Tuxedo, NY: Xicom.
Tjosvold, D. (1985). Implications of controversy research for management. Journal of Management, 11(3), 21-37.
Touval, S., Zartman, I. W., & Studies, J. H. U. S. o. A. I. (1985). International mediation in theory and practice: Westview Press Boulder, CO.
Vokić, N. P., & Sontor, S. (2009). Conflict Management Styles in Croatian Enterprises–The Relationship between Individual Characteristics and Conflict Handling Styles. EFZG Working Papers Series.
Wagner, S. M., Lukassen, P., & Mahlendorf, M. (2010). Misused and missed use—Grounded Theory and Objective Hermeneutics as methods for research in industrial marketing. Industrial Marketing Management, 39(1), 5-15.
Wakeford, J. (1969). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Sociology, 3(2), 269-270.
Wall, J. A., & Callister, R. R. (1995). Conflict and Its Management. Journal of Management, 21(3).
Ward-Schofield, J. (1993). Increasing the generalisability of qualitative research. Hammersley M (ed) Social research: philosophy, politics and practice, 200-225.
Weber, R. P. (1990). Basic content analysis (Vol. 49): Sage Pubns.
Whittemore, R., Chase, S. K., & Mandle, C. L. (2001). Pearls, pith, and provocation. Qualitative Health Research, 11(4), 522-537.
Yin, R. K. (1981). The case study crisis: Some answers. Administrative science quarterly, 26(1), 58-65.
Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (Vol. 5): Sage publications, INC.
Yuan, Y., Head, M., & Du, M. (2003). The effects of multimedia communication on web-based negotiation. Group Decision and Negotiation, 12(2), 89-109.