本論文旨在藉由探討存在於生產權力的空間以及承受或/和抗拒此權力的身體之間的辯證關係來測繪童妮•摩里森六本小說中的黑人女性主體。有鑑於主體乃心理、空間與社會權力交互作用下的產品，本研究對空間和身體提出心理分析式的地理政治學觀點。此為結合勒弗伯赫對空間所作的心理分析以及施律福特對個人不斷與空間中權力關係交涉的想法。
首章說明小說的歷史背景、本論文之動機、相關議題的文獻探討、方法論以及結構。次章解釋權力的場域、實踐此權力的身體場域與因應的抗拒策略，用以銓說本論文次標題—空間、身體與抗拒—如何貫穿摩里森的作品。接下來的三章各論述兩部小說。
第三章主要在研究《愛娃》和《爵士樂》兩本小說，勒弗伯赫的空間被抽象化概念，如何呈現奴隸制和資本主義剝奪或扭曲黑人女性的鏡中影像（理想我）並否決或腐化其立身於世之感與自愛的能力。黑人女性隨後更經歷一連串的社會化過程：先是內化白人的論述與城市的習俗，次而挖掘再釋放歷史上被壓抑的記憶，終能重新愛自己和別人以重塑其主體。其對自我的意識方得萌芽。
第四章，以勒弗伯赫的空間視覺化邏輯來檢視《最湛藍的眼睛》和《所羅門之歌》，北方的城市論述如何影響對身體的解讀，且令年輕女性臣服於資本主義和父權制度之下。其主體之建構誠屬失敗。
第五章試圖分析《蘇拉》和《柏油娃》，黑人女性將主體構築在區別自己與社群之不同。此社群面臨被來自代表陽物優勢的種族殖民、父權和資本主義所空間抽象化的威脅。是以，女主角採取被邊緣化或用旅行以轉換位置的策略來抵抗，並成全其對自我的堅持。末章為整部論文總結。

This dissertation aims to map the black female subject in Toni Morrison’s six fictions—The Bluest Eye, Sula, Song of Solomon, Tar Baby, Beloved, and Jazz—by exploring the dialectic between space, which produces power, and the body, which receives or/and resists the power. Since subjectivity relies on the interrelationship among mentality, space, and social power, I use psycho-geopolitical viewpoints about space and the body, which combine Henri Lefebvre’s psycho-spatial concept of “abstract space” reigned by a logic of visualization and Nigel Thrift’s theory of “personality” and “socialization” referring to the individual’s constant negotiations with power relations within space.
The introductory chapter presents the motivation of this study, the historical context of the fictions, literature reviews on relative issues, and finally the methodology and organization of the whole thesis. Chapter Two, by explaining the sites of power, the body as the site for articulating the power, and the ensuing strategies of resistance, elaborates how the subtitle of my dissertation—space, body, and resistance— would work in Morrison’s works. Then in each following chapter, two novels would be discussed.
In Chapter Three, “Positionality and Self-Love in Beloved and Jazz,” I study how Lefebvrezian spatial abstractions, through slavery and capitalism, present black female characters a deprived or distorted mirror image and consequently deny or corrupt their positionality and self-love. They then undergo a series of Thriftian socialization by first internalizing the white discourse and the urban mores, then by unearthing and letting go the historical repressed, and finally by recovering their love for self and others in order to reconstruct their subjectivities. They thus gain a budding sense of self.
In Chapter Four, “The Failure of Subjectivity in The Bluest Eye and Song of Solomon,” I would examine, in terms of Lefebvre’s “visualization” within space, how the urban discourse in the Northern setting influences the reading of the body and subordinates the female youngsters to a capitalist and patriarchal hierarchy of power.
Chapter Five, “Subjectivity with-out the Community: Sula and The Tar Baby,” is an attempt to analyze the black female characters’ subjectivity construction upon claiming difference from the community, which confronts spatial abstraction by the phallic power embodied in racial colonization, patriarchy, and capitalism. The heroines thus take marginality or shift locations through journeys as strategies for resistance. The final chapter is a conclusion of the whole thesis.

Chapter One Introduction 1
I. Motivation 1
II. Historical Context of the Fictions 3
III. Literature Reviews 8
A. The Black Female Subject 9
B. Self and Place in Morrison’s Fictions 12
C. Theories of Space 15
IV. Methodology 18
A. Lefebvre’s Spatial Abstraction: the Visual and the Phallus 19
B. Thrift’s Personality and Socialization 22
V. Organization 23
Chapter Two Space, Body, and Resistance 26
I. The Body as a Site for the Articulation of Power 26
II. The Site of Power 30
A. The Work Place—the Plantation and the White’s Home 31
B. The Communal Space 33
C. The Domestic Space 34
III. Resistance to Power in Space 37
A. Gender Politics 38
B. The Politics of Difference 40
C. The Community of Resistance 43
IV. Conclusion 45
Chapter Three Positionality and Self-Love in Beloved and Jazz 47
I. The Abstraction of Space 48
A. The Sweet Home Plantation: Neither Sweet Nor Home 49
1. The Territory with the Institution of Slavery 49
2. The Territory with the Discourse of Slavery 52
B. The 124 Home: Both Nurturance and Consumption of Life 54
1. The Site of Infanticide 55
2. The Resting Place of Memory 56
C. The Rural South: Racial and Economic Disempowerment 61
D. The Urban North: the Promised Land Deferred 65
1. Racial and Economic Conflicts 65
2. Jazzian Mood and Mores 68
II. Wronged Positionality 70
A. The Deprived or Distorted Mirror Image 71
B. The Excessive or Rejected Motherhood 75
III. Self-Love 79
A. Love for the Body and the Self 80
B. The Community of Resistance 82
IV. Conclusion: Socialization 87
Chapter Four
The Failure of Subjectivity in The Bluest Eye and Song of Solomon 90
I. The Impoverished Black Family with White Value 91
A. The Lorain Community as a Site of White Gaze 92
1. The Visual Regime of Whiteness 92
2. The Others 100
B. The Storefront Residence as a Site of Oppressions 111
1. The Terrain of Empty Life 111
2. The Field of Physical Violence 112
II. The Impoverished Black Family with Black Value 116
A. The Great Lakes Region 116
1. The White Gaze 118
2. The Black Gaze 121
B. The Self-Sufficient Dwelling 125
1. The Margin of the Society 127
2. The Wild Wilderness 131
III. The Rich Black Family with White Value 135
A. The Patriarchal Dispassionate Abode 136
B. The Tiny Room with a New Self 139
IV. Conclusion 140
Chapter Five
Subjectivity with-out the Abstract Community: Sula and Tar Baby 143
I. Force for Survival/Power of Control 145
II. Subjectivity and Community 152
A. Subjectivity upon Difference from the Community 154
B. Subjectivity upon Difference within Herself 159
III. The Risky Social Margin 164
IV. Dislocation from the United States Mainland 169
A. Colonization of the Land 170
B. Colonization of the Blacks 172
V. The Journeys for Subjectivity 177
A. To Isle des Chevaliers 179
B. To New York 186
C. To Eloe 187
D. On the Plane to Paris 191
VI. A Subject in Transition 194
VII. Conclusion 197
Chapter Six Conclusion 199
Works Cited 214

Primary Sources
Morrison, Toni. Beloved. New York: Knopf, 1987.
---. The Bluest Eye. New York: Pocket, 1970.
---. Jazz. New York: Plume, 1993.
---. “City Limits, Village Values: Concepts of the Neighborhood in Black Fiction.” Literature and the Urban Experience. Ed. Michael C. Jaye and Ann Chalmers Watts. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 1981. 35-43.
---. “A Conversation: Gloria Naylor and Toni Morrison.” Southern Review 21 (1985): 567-93.
---. The Nobel Lecture in Literature 1993. New York: Knopf, 1994.
---. Song of Solomon. New York: Signet, 1977.
---. Sula. New York: Plume, 1973.
---. Tar Baby. New York: Signet, 1981.3.
---. “Rootedness: The Ancestor as Foundation.” Black Women Writers (1950-1980): A Critical Examination. Ed. Mari Evans. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor, 1984.
---. “Unspeakable Things Unspoken: The Afro-American Presence in American Literature.” Michigan Quarterly Review 28.1 (1988): 1-34.

Secondary Sources
Abel, Elizabeth. “Race, Class, and Psychoanalysis? Opening Questions.” Conflicts in Feminism. Ed. Marianne Hirsh. New York: Routledge, 1990. 184-204.
Angelo, Bonnie. “The Pain of Being Black: An Interview.” Time 22 May 1989: 48-50.
Backes, Nancy. “Growing Up Desperately: The Adolescent ‘Other’ in the Novels of Paule Marshall, Toni Morrison, and Michelle Cliff.” Women of Color: Defining the Issues, Hearing the Voices. Ed. Diane Long Hoeveler and Janet K. Boles. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001. 145-57.
Backus, Margot Gayle. “’Looking for that Dead Girl’: Incest, Pornography, and the Capitalist Family Romance in Nightwood, The Years, and Tar Baby.” American Imago: Studies in Psychoanalysis and Culture 51.4 (1994): 421-46.
Badt, Karin Luisa. “The Roots of the Body in Toni Morrison: A Mater of ‘Ancient Properties.’” African American Review 29.4 (1995): 567-77.
Baker, Houston A. Jr., and Patricia Redmond, eds. Afro-American Literary Study in the 1990s. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1989.
Bakerman, Jane S. “Failures of Love: Female Initiation in the Novels of Toni Morrison.” American Literature 52.4 (1981): 541-63.
Bakhtin, Mikhail. “Discourse in the Novel.” The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin: U of Texas P, 1981. 259-422.
Banyiwa-Horne, Naana. “The Scary Face of the Self: An Analysis of the Character of Sula in Toni Morrison’s Sula.” Sage 2 (Spr. 1985): 28-31.
Barnes, Deborah H. “The Bottom of Heaven: Myth, Metaphor, and Memory in Toni Morrison’s Reconstructed South.” Studies in the Literary Imagination: Toni Morrison and the American South 31.2 (1998): 17-36.
Beavers, Herman. “The Politics of Space: Southernness and Manhood in the Fictions of Toni Morrison.” Studies in the Literary Imagination: Toni Morrison and the American South 31.2 (1998): 61-77.
Bell, Bernard W. The Afro-American Novel and Its Tradition. Amherst: The U of Massachusetts P, 1987.
Benjamin, Jessica. The Bonds of Love: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and the Problem of Domination. New York: Pantheon Books, 1988.
Benston, Kimberly W. “Re-Weaving the ‘Ulysses Scene’: Enchantment, Post-Oedipal Identity, and the Buried Text of Blackness in Toni Morrison’s Song of Solomon.” Comparative American Identities: Race, Sex, and Nationality in the Modern Text. Ed. Hortense J. Spillers. New York, Routledge: 1991. 87-109.
Bethel, Lorraine. “This Infinity of Conscious Pain: Zora Neale Hurston and the Black Female Literary Tradition.” Hull, Scott, and Smith 176-88.
Bhabha, Homi. “Remembering Fanon: Self, Psyche and the Colonial Condition.” Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory: A Reader. Ed. Patrick Williams and Laura Chrisman. New York: Columbia UP, 1994. 112-23.
Bjork, Patrick Bryce. The Novels of Toni Morrison: The Search for Self and Place Within the Community. New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc., 1992.
Blake, Susan. “Folklore and the Community in Song of Solomon.” MELUS 7.3 (1980): 77-82.
Boyer, Paul S. et al. The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People. 2nd ed. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company, 1995.
Brenkman, John. Culture and Domination. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1987.
Bryant, Cedric Gael. “The Orderliness of Disorder: Madness and Evil in Toni Morrison’s Sula.” Black American Literature Forum 24 (1990): 731-45.
Butler-Evans, Elliott. “Racial Discourse, Aesthetics, and Desire in Morrison’s The Bluest Eye and Sula.” Race, Gender, and Desire: Narrative Strategies in the Fiction of Toni Cade Bambara, Toni Morrison, and Alice Walker. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1989. 59-90.
Butler, Judith. “Contingent Foundations: Feminism and the Question of ‘Postmodernism.’” Feminists Theorize The Political. Ed. Judith Butler and Joan W. Scott. New York: Routledge, 1992. 3-21.
Butler, Robert. “Toni Morrison’s Song of Solomon: Dialectics of Place and Space.” Contemporary African American Fiction: The Open Journey. London: Associated UPes, 1998. 75-87.
Cadman, Deborah. “When the Back Door Is Closed and the Front Yard Is Dangerous: The Space of Girlhood in Toni Morrison’s Fiction.” The Girl: Construction of the Girl in Contemporary Fiction by Women. Ed. Ruth O. Saxton. Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1998. 57-78.
Carmichael, Stokeley, and Charles V. Hamilton. Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America. New York: Vintage, 1967.
Cash, W. J. The Mind of the South. New York: Knopf, 1941.
Cheng, Anne Anlin. “Wounded Beauty: An Exploratory Essay on Race, Feminism, and the Aesthetic Question.” Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 19.2 (2000): 191-217.
Chodorow, Nancy. The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender. Berkeley: U of California P, 1978.
Christian, Barbara. Black Feminist Criticism: Perspectives on Black Women Writers. New York: Pergamon, 1985.
---. Black women Novelists: The Development of a Tradition. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980.
Clemons, Walter. “A Gravestone of Memories.” Newsweek 28 Sep. (1987): 74-75.
Clifford, James. “Traveling Cultures.” Cultural Studies. Ed. L. Grossberg, C. Nelson, and P. Treichler. New York: Routledge, 1992. 96-112.
Coleman, Alisha R. “One and One Make One: A Metacritical and Psychoanalytic Reading of Friendship in Toni Morrison’s Sula.” CLA Journal 37 (1993): 145-55.
Combahee River Collective. “A Black Feminist Statement.” Hull, Scott, and Smith 13-22.
Cormier-Hamilton, Patrice. “Black Naturalism and Toni Morrison: The Journey Away from Self-Love in The Bluest Eye.” MELEUS 19.4 (1994): 109-27.
Daly, Mary. Beyond God the Father: Toward a Philosophy of Women’s Liberation. Boston: Beacon P, 1973.
Davies, Carole Boyce. “Mothering and Healing in Recent Black Women’s Fiction.” Sage 2.1 (1995): 41-3.
De Lauretis, Teresa. Feminist Studies/Cultural Studies. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1986.
---. Technologies of Gender: Essays on Theory, Film and Fiction. London: Macmillan, 1987.
Denard, Carolyn. Introduction. Studies in the Literary Imagination: Toni Morrison and the American South 31.2 (1998): i-vii.
---. “Blacks, Modernism, and the American South: An Interview with Toni Morrison.” Studies in the Literary Imagination: Toni Morrison and the American South 31.2 (1998): 1-16.
Dickerson, Vanessa D. “Summoning SomeBody: The Flesh Made Word in Toni Morrison’s Fiction.” Recovering the Black Female Body: Self-Representation by African American Women. Ed. Michael Bennett and Vaness D. Dickerson. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 2001. 195-216.
Douglas, Mary. Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. London: Routledge, 1966.
Doyle, Laura. “’To Get to a Place’: Intercorporeality in Beloved.” Bordering on the Body: the Racial Matrix of Modern Fiction and Culture. New York: Oxford UP, 1994. 206-30.
Dubey, Madhu. Black Women Novelists and the Nationalist Aesthetic. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1994.
Duvall, John N. “Descent in the ‘House of Chloe’: Race, Rape, and Identity in Toni Morrison’s Tar Baby.” Contemporary Literature 38.2 (1997): 325-49.
Edwards, Thomas. “Ghost Story.” New York Review of Books 5 Nov. (1987): 18-19.
Elkins, Stanley M. Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life. 1959; New York: Grossset and Dunlap, 1963.
Emberley, Julia V. “A Historical Transposition: Toni Morrison’s Tar Baby and Frantz Fanon’s Post-Enlightenment Phantasms.” Modern Fiction Studies 45.2 (1999): 403-31.
Franklin, John Hope. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans. 3rd ed. New York: Knopf, 1967.
Fredrickson, George M. The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1867-1914. New York: Harper and Row, 1971. 275-82.
Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. 1963. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1984.
Fultz, Lucille P. “To Make Herself: Mother-Daughter Conflicts in Toni Morrison’s Sula and Tar Baby.” Women of Color: Mother-Daughter relationships in twentieth-century literature. Ed. Elizabeth Brown-Guillory. Austin: U of Texas P, 1996. 228-43.
Galehouse, Maggie. “’New World Woman’: Toni Morrison’s Sula.” Papers on Language & Literature 35.4 (1999): 339-62.
Glover, J. The Philosophy and Psychology of Personal Identity. Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1988.
Grosz, Elizabeth. “Bodies-Cities.” Places Through the Body. Nast and Pile 42-51.
---. Sexual Subversions: Three French Feminists. London: Routledge, 1989.
Gubar, Susan. “’The blank page’ and the Issues of Female Creativity.” The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature, and Theory. Ed. Elaine Showalter. New York: Pantheon, 1985. 292-313.
Guerrero, Ed. “Tracking ‘The Look’ in the Novels of Toni Morrison.” Toni Morrison’s Fiction: Contemporary Criticism. Ed. David L. Middleton. New York and London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 2000. 27-41.
Haraway, Donna. “A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s.” Feminism/Postmodernism. Ed. Linda J. Nicholson. London: Routledge, 1990. 190-233.
“Harlem Renaissance.” Microsoft &reg;Encarta &reg;Online Encyclopedia 2004. 12 Jan. 2005 <http://encarta.msn.com>. &copy;1997-2004 Microsoft Corporation.
Harris, Trudier. “Beloved.” Fiction and Folklore: The Novels of Toni Morrison. Knoxville: U Tennessee P, 1994. 151-83.
Harvey, David. “Class Relations and Social Justice.” Keith and Pile 41-66.
Holden-Kirwan, Jennifer L. “Looking Into the Self That Is No Self: An Examination of Subjectivity in Beloved.” African American Review 32.3 (1998): 415-26.
Holland, Sharon P., and Michael Awkward. “Marginality and Community in Beloved.” Approaches to Teaching the Novels of Toni Morrison. Ed. Nellie Y. McKay and Kathryn Earle. New York: The Modern Language Association of American, 1997. 48-55.
Holloway, Karla. Moorings and Metaphors: Figures of Culture and Gender in Black Women’s Literature. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992.
hooks, bell. Black Looks: Race and Representation. Boston: South End, 1992.
---. Sisters of the Yam: Black Women and Self-Discovery. Boston, MA: South End Press, c1993.
---. Yearnings: Race, Gender and Cultural Politics. Boston: South End Press, 1990.
Horvitz, Deborah. “Nameless Ghosts: Possession and Dispossession in Beloved.” Studies in American Fiction 17.2 (1989): 157-67.
House, Elizabeth B. “Toni Morrison’s Ghost: The Beloved Who Is Not Beloved.” Studies in American Fiction 18.1 (1990): 17-26.
Hull, Gloria T., Patricia Bell Scott, and Barbara Smith, eds. All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, but Some of Us Are Brave. New York: Feminist Press, 1982.
Hurston, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God. 1937. New York, N.Y.: HarperPerennial, 1998.
Jencks, Christopher. Rethinking Social Policy. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1992.
Jones, Carolyn M. “Southern Landscape as Psychic Landscape.” Studies in the Literary Imagination: Toni Morrison and the American South 31.2 (1998): 37-48.
Karl, Frederick R. American Fictions: 1940/1980: A Comprehensive History and Critical Evaluation. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1983.
Keith, Michael, and Steve Pile, eds. Place and the Politics of Identity. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.
Kester, Gunilla Theander. “A Double Code: Language and the Female Subject in Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye and Gayl Jones’ Eva’s Man.” Writing the Subject: Bildung and the African American Text. New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc., 1995. 73-105.
Kristeva, Julia. Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection. New York: Columbia UP, 1982.
Lacan, J. “The Mirror Stage as Formative of the Function of the I.” &Eacute;crits: A Selection. London: Tavistock, 1949. 30-113. Trans. Alan Sheridan. London: Tavistock Publications, 1977.
Lawrence, David. “Fleshly Ghosts and Ghostly Flesh: the Word and the Body in Beloved.” Toni Morrison’s Fiction: Contemporary Criticism. Ed. David L. Middleton. New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 2000. 231-46.
LeClair, Thomas. “The Language Must Not Sweat: A Conversation with Toni Morrison.” Taylor-Guthrie 119-28.
Lee, Catherine Carr. “Initiation South, and Home in Song of Solomon.” Studies in the Literary Imagination: Toni Morrison and the American South 31.2 (1998): 108-23.
Lee, Dorothy. “Song of Solomon: To Ride the Air.” Black American Literature Forum 16.2 (1982): 64-70.
Lefebvre, H. The Production of Space. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1974.
Lerner, Gerda. Black Women in white America: A Documentary History. New York: Vintage P., 1972.
LeSeur, Geta. Ten is the Age of Darkness: The Black Bildungsroman. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1995.
Lewis, Vashti Crutcher. “African Tradition in Toni Morrison’s Sula.” Phylon 48. 1 (1987): 91-98.
Lorde, Audre. Sister Outsider. New York: Crossing Press, 1984.
Mahler, Margaret, Fred Pine, and Anni Bergman. The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant. New York: Basic, 1975.
Mbalia, Doreatha Drummond. Toni Morrison’s Developing Class Consciousness. London: Associated UPes, 1991.
McDowell, Deborah. “Boundaries: Or Distant Relations and Close Kin.” Baker and Redmond 51-70.
McKee, Patricia. “Spacing and Placing Experience in Toni Morrison’s Sula.” Modern Fictions Studies 42.1 (1996): 1-30.
Miller, Jane. Women Writing about Men. New York: Pantheon, 1986.
Mitchell, Angelyn. “History, Gender, and The South in Morrison’s Jazz.” Studies in the Literary Imagination: Toni Morrison and the American South 31.2 (1998): 49-60.
Mitchell, W. J. T. ed. Landscape and Power: Space, Place, and Landscape. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1994.
Mobley, Marilyn E. “Narrative Dilemma: Jadine as Cultural Orphan in Toni Morrison’s Tar Baby.” The Southern Review 23.4 (1987): 761-70.
Moses, Cathy. “Playing in History’s Dark: the Struggle for Agency in Toni Morrison’s Jazz.” Dissenting Fictions: Identity and Resistance in the Contemporary American Novel. New York: Garland, 2000. 35-54.
Nast, Heidi J., and Steve Pile. “EverydayPlacesBodies.” Nast and Pile 405-16.
---, eds. Places through the Body. London and New York: Routledge, 1998.
Norris, Cathleen. Dakota: A Spiritual Geography. New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1983.
O’Reilly, Andrea. “In Search of My Mother’s Garden, I Found My Own: Mother-Love, Healing, and Identity in Toni Morrison’s Jazz.” African American Review 30. 3 (1996): 367-79.
“The Origin of ‘Jim Crow.’” Afro-American Almanac. Feb. 2001. The Digital Development Group. 25 Oct. 2004 <http://toptags.com/aama/ docs/jcrow.htm>. Path: Historical Documents; Origin of “Jim Crow.”
Osofsky, Gilbert. Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930. New York: Harper, 1971.
Paquet-Deyris, Anne-Marie. “Toni Morrison’s Jazz and the City.” African American Review 35.2 (2001): 219-31.
Patterson, Orlando. “Taking Culture Seriously: A Framework and an Afro-American Illustration.” Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human Progress. Ed. L. E. Harrison and S. P. Huntington. New York: Basic Books, 2000. 202-18.
Peach, Linden. Modern Novelists: Toni Morrison. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995.
P&eacute;rez-Torre, Rafael. “Knitting and Knotting the Narrative Thread—Beloved as Postmodern Novel.” Modern Fiction Studies 39.3-4 (1993): 689-707.
Pile, Steve. The Body and the City: Psychoanalysis, Space and Subjectivity. London and New York: Routledge, 1996.
Pile, Steve, and Nigel Thrift, eds. Mapping the Subject: Geographies of Cultural Transformation. London and New York: Routledge, 1995.
Pringle, Mary Beth. “On A Jet Plane: Jadine’s Search for Identity through Place in Toni Morrison’s Tar Baby.” Midwestern Miscellany 24 (1996): 37-50.
Rainwater, Lee. “Fear and the House-as-Haven in the Lower Class.” Journal of the American Institute of Planners 32.1 (1966): 23-30.
---. “The Problem of Lower-Class Culture and Poverty-War Strategy.” On Understanding Poverty. Ed. Daniel P. Moynihan. New York: Basic, 1969. 229-59.
Reed, Harry. “Toni Morrison, Song of Solomon and Black Cultural Nationalism.” Centennial Review 32.1 (1988): 50-64.
Reyes, Angelita. “Politics and Metaphors of Materialism in Paule Marshall’s Praisesong for the Widow and Toni Morrison’s Tar Baby.” Politics and the Muse: Studies in the Politics of Recent American Literature. Ed. Adam J. Sorkin. Bowling Green: Popular, 1989. 179-205.
Rich, Adrienne Cecile. “Notes Toward A Politics of Location.” Blood Bread and Poetry: Selected Prose, 1979-1985. By Rich. New York: W. W. Norton, 1986. 210-31.
---. On Lies, Secrets, and Silence: Selected Prose, 1966-1978. New York: Norton, 1979.
Rodrigues, Eusebio L. “Experiencing Jazz.” Modern Fiction Studies 39 (1993): 733-54.
Rose, Gillian. “Making Space for the Female Subject of Feminism: the Spatial Subversions of Holzer, Kruger and Sherman.” Pile and Thrift 332-54.
Rushing, Andrea Benton. “Images of Black Women in Afro-American Poetry.” The Afro-American Woman: Struggles and Images. Ed. Sharon Harley and Rosalyn Terborg-Penn. Port Washington: Kennikate, 1978. 74-84.
Ryan, Judylvn S., Estella Conwill M&aacute;jozo. “Jazz—On ‘The Site of Memory.’” Studies in the Literary Imagination: Toni Morrison and the American South 31.2 (1998): 125-52.
Samuels, Wilfred D., Clenora Hudson-Weems. Toni Morrison. Boston: Twayne, 1990.
Schapiro, Barbara. “The Bonds of Love and the Boundaries of Self in Toni Morrison’s Beloved.” Contemporary Literature 32.2 (1991): 194-209.
Schmidt, Klaus H. “Between Creativity and Conformity: Marginality and Gender in Toni Morrison’s Sula.” Transfer: &Uuml;bersetzen-Dolmetschen- Interkulturalit&auml;t. Ed. Horst W. Drescher. New York: Peter Lang, 1997. 415-29.
Schramm, Margaret. “The Quest for the Perfect Mother in Toni Morrison’s Sula.” The Anna Book: Searching for Anna in Literary History. Ed. Mickey Pearlman. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1992. 167-76.
Schwartz, Gary. “Toni Morrison at the Movies: Theorizing Race Through Imitation of Life.” Existence in Black: An Anthology of Black Existential Philosophy. Ed. Lewis Gordon. New York and London: Routledge, 1996. 111-28.
Scott, Emmett J. “Letters of Negro Migrants of 1916-1918.” The Journal of Negro History July 1919: 290-348.
Scruggs, Charles. “The Invisible City in Toni Morrison’s Beloved.” Arizona Quarterly: A Journal of American Literature, Culture and Theory 48.3 (1992): 95-132.
Segal, Naomi. “Echo and Narcissus.” Between Feminism and Psychoanalysis. Ed. Teresa Brennan. London: Routledge, 1989. 168-86.
Shaw, Arnold. The Jazz Age. London: Oxford UP, 1987.
Shields, Rob. “A Guide to Urban Representation and What to Do about It: Alternative Traditions of Urban Theory.” Re-Presenting the City. Ed. Anthony D. King. New York : New York UP, 1996. 227-52.
Sibley, David. “Families and Routines: Constructing the Boundaries of Childhood.” Pile and Thrift 123-37.
Silverman, Kaja. “Fassbinder and Lacan: A Reconsideration of the Gaze, Look and Image.” Camera Obscura 15 (1989): 54-85.
---. “Fragments of a Fashionable Discourse.” Tania Modleski 139-54.
Slattery, Dennis Patrick. “The Narrative Body and the Incarnate Word in Toni Morrison’s Beloved.” The Wounded Body: Remembering the Markings of Flesh. Albany: State U of New York P, 2000. 207-35.
Slaughter, Thomas F., Jr. “Epidermalizing the World: A Basic Mode of Being Black.” Philosophy Born of Struggle: Anthology of Afro- American Philosophy from 1917. Ed. Leonard Harris. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1983. 283-88.
Smith, Barbara. “Toward a Black Feminist Criticism.” Hull, Scott, and Smith 157-75.
Smith, Felipe. “White Witch and Black Madonna: Reclamations of the Feminine in Toni Morrison’s Tar Baby.” Narrative and Culture. Ed. Janice Carlisle and Daniel R. Schwarz. Athens, Georgia: The U of Georgia P, 1994. 77- 96.
Smith, Neil, and Cindi Katz. “Grounding Metaphor: Towards A Spatialized Politics.” Keith and Pile 67-83.
Smith, Valerie. “The Quest for and Discovery of Identity in Toni Morrison's Song of Solomon.” The Southern Review 21.3 (1985): 721-32.
Soja, Edward W. Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory. London; New York : Verso, 1989.
Soja, Edward W., and Barbara Hooper. “The Space that Difference Makes: Some Notes on the Geographical Margins of the New Cultural Politics.” Keith and Pile 183-205.
Spillers, Hortense. “Response.” Baker and Redmond 71-73.
Sreekumar, Sharmila. “The Portrait of the Alien/The Other in a Modern American Novel: Toni Morrison’s Tar Baby.” Indian Journal of American Studies 26.2 (1996): 105-08.
Stallybrass, P. and White, A. The Politics and Poetics of Transgression. London: Methuen, 1986.
Stampp, Kenneth M. The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South. New York: Vintage Books, 1989.
Stepto, Robert. “Intimate Things in Place: A Conversation with Toni Morrison.” Taylor-Guthrie 10-29.
Subryan, Carmen. “Circles: Mother and Daughter Relationships in Toni Morrison’s Song of Solomon.” Sage 5.1 (1988): 34-36.
Sylvester, Melvin. “Background.” The African American: A Journey from Slavery to Freedom. Feb. 1998. B. Davis Schwartz Memorial Library, C.W.Post Campus of Long Island U. 25 Oct. 2004 <http://www.liunet. edu/cwis/cwp/library/aaslavry: htm#intro>.
Tate, Claudia. Black Women Writers at Work. New York: Continuum, 1983.
Taylor-Gutherie, Danielle, ed. Conversations with Toni Morrison. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 1994.
Thrift, Nigel. “On the Determination of Social Action in Space and Time.” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1.1 (1983): 23-57.
Tolnay, Stewart. “Black Family Formation and Tenancy in the Farm South, 1900.” American Journal of Sociology 90 (1984): 305-25.
Tucker, Lindsey. “Morrison’s Desolated Centers: Mobility, Desire, and Subjectivity in Sula and Beloved.” Textual Escap(e)ades: Mobility, Maternity, and Textuality in Contemporary Fiction by Women. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994. 87-110.
Vickroy, Laurie. “The Force Outside/The Force Inside: Mother-Love and Regenerative Spaces in Sula and Beloved.” Obsidian II: Black Literature in Review 8.2 (1993): 28-45.
Wachtel, Eleanor. “Interview with Toni Morrison.” CBC FM Radio. 18 July 1993.
Walker, Alice. In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovitch, 1983.
Walker, Melissa. Down from the Mountaintop: Black Women’s Novels in the Wake of the Civil Right Movement, 1966-1989. New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1991.
Washington, Anita. “A Cultural and Historical Perspective on Pregnancy- Related Activity among U.S. Teenagers.” The Journal of Black Psychology 9.1 (1982): 1-28.
Washington, Mary Helen. “Teaching Black Eyed Susans: An Approach to the Study of Black Women Writers.” Hull, Scott, and Smith 208-20.
Watkins, Mel. “A Talk with Toni Morrison.” The New York Times Book Review Sept. 11(1977): 50.
Weems, Renita. “Artists Without Art Form”: A Look at One Black Woman’s World of Unrevered Black Women.” Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology. Ed. Barbara Smith. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 2000. 94-104.
Wegs, Joyce. “Toni Morrison’s Song of Solomon: A Blues Song.” Essays in Literature 9.2 (1982): 211-23.
White, Deborah Gray. Ar’n’t I a Woman?:Female Slaves in the Plantation South. New York: Norton, 1985.
White, Stephen K. Political Theory and Postmodernism. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1991.
Wilson, Charles R. “Manners.” Encyclopedia of Southern Culture. Chapel Hill, NC: U of North Carolina P, 1989. 634-37.
Wilson, William Julius, and Kathryn M. Neckerman. “Poverty and Family Structure: The Widening Gap Between Evidence and Public Issues.” Fighting Poverty: What Works and What Doesn’t. Ed. S.H. Danziger and Daniel H. Weinbert. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1986. 232-59.
Winnicott, D. W. Playing and Reality. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1974.
Wood, R.G. “Marriage Rates and Marriageable Men: A Test of the Wilson Hypothesis.” Journal of Human Resources 30 (1995): 163-93.
Wyatt, Jean. “Giving Body to the Word: The Maternal Symbolic in Toni Morrison’s Beloved.” PMLA 108 (1993): 474-88.
Yancy, George. “The Black Self within A Semiotic Space of Whiteness: Reflections on the Racial Deformation of Pecola Breedlove in Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye.” CLA Journal 43.3 (2000 Mar): 299-319.