本論文主要是在探討二次世界大戰後日裔美加移民受到當地政府的集中營政策, 被拘留後所留下來的創傷
論文中所所探討的主要二本文本為John Okada的No-No Boy和Joy Kogawa的Obasan, 二本小說皆記載了二次世界大戰後日裔美加移民所受到的不平等待遇和所受到的政治迫害.

Abstract
In a 1997 review, James Berger not only clearly points out the proliferation of trauma study in the 1990s but also professes that the representation of trauma would be more easily detected, analysized, and understood with immersion in literary texts. Therefore, in this thesis, I draw upon the ideas of historical trauma, psychological trauma, structural trauma and trauma responses in the five theoretical works—Judith Lewis Herman’s Trauma and Recover (1992), Ronald Granofsky’s The Trauma Novel: Contemporary Symbolic Depictions of Collective Disaster (1995), Tedeschi, Richard G. and Lawrence G. Calhoun’s Trauma and Transformation: Growing in the Aftermath of Suffering (1995), Cathy Caruth’s Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History (1996) and Dominick LaCapra’s Writing History, Writing Trauma (2001)—to analysize the issue of trauma as revealed in John Okada’s No-No Boy and Joy Kogawa’s Obasan. The two texts differ in time and space but share the same historical trauma evoked by the aftereffect of the war and the violence of the governments’ racially-oriented discrimination policy that results in the Nikkei’s psychological trauma. Okada presents white American racial ascendancy in the 1950s, while Kogawa tackles Canadian governmental dominance in the 1980s. Both writers are concerned with the relationship between collective persecution and individual trauma during/after World War Two and both try to empower as well as give voice to those who have been traumatized by social and familial forces.
Reading the two novels as an exploration of the Nikkei’s postwar experience, this thesis first contends that underlying the Nikkei’s trauma is the internment experience that leads to the occurrence of racial discrimination and identity crisis in the Nikkei community. Secondly, in the light of historical trauma and psychological trauma, this thesis analyzes the trauma responses which normally take shapes in the forms of conflict, avoidance, guilt, flashbacks, dreams, numbing or amnesia in the minds of traumatized people after long years of struggling. However, instead of regarding these responses to be obstacles, this thesis proposes that the trauma responses are great reinforcement for the survivors to cope with the trauma memory and to reconcile with the trauma history. Through discussion of trauma response, this thesis suggests that the Nikkei would work through the process of experiencing the symptoms of trauma and slowly reach the level of recovery and transformation. That is, a resolution of the Nikkei’s rebirth would be possible when the Nikkei overcome the threat of trauma and develop a hope of reconciliation for their upcoming future.

Acknowledgement i
Abstract iii

Introduction
Trauma, No-No Boy and Obasan 1

Chapter One
The Study of Trauma and the History of Interment in North America 12

Chapter Two
Trauma in No-No Boy 26

Chapter Three
Reading Joy Kogawa’s Obasan as Revelations of Trauma 55

Conclusion
A Hopeful Ending— Transformation and Reconciliation 81

Works Cited 86

Works Cited
Aberbach, David. Surviving Trauma: Loss, Literature, and Psychoanalysis. New Haven: Yale UP, 1989.
Amoko, Apollo O. “Resilient ImagiNations: No-No Boy, Obasan and the Limits of Minority Discourse.” Mosaic 33 (2000): 35-55.
Andrews, B. A. St. “The Ostracized Self: The Saga of the Japanese Canadians in Joy Kogawa’s Obasan.” Amerasia Journal 13 (1986): 167-71.
Banerjee, Chinmoy. “Polyphonic Form and Effective Aesthetic in Obasan.” Canadian Literature 160 (1999): 101-19.
Bauckham, Richard. New Testament Theology: The Theology of the Book of Revelation. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1993.
Berger, James. “Trauma and Literary Theory.” Contemporary Literature 38 (1997): 569-82.
Boheemen, Christine van. Joyce, Derrida, Lacan, and the Trauma of History. New York: Cambridge UP, 1999.
Bouson, J. Brooks. Quiet as It’s Kept: Shame, Trauma, and Race in the Novels of Toni Morrison. Albany: State University of New York, 2000.
Brydon, Diana. “Obasan: Joy Kogawa’s Lament for a Nation.” Kunapipi 16 (1994): 465-70.
Byrne, Mary Ellen. “Obasan: More than One Telling/More than One Reading.” TETYC 30 (2002): 30-37.
Caruth, Cathy. Trauma: Explorations in Memory. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1995.
----. Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1996.
Chen, Fu-jen. “John Okada.” Asian American Novelists: A Bio-Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook. Ed. Emmanel S. Nelson. London: Greenwood Press, 2000. 281-88.
Cheung, King-kok. “Attentive Silence: Obasan.” Articulate Silence: Hisaye Yamamto, Maxine Hong Kingston, Joy Kogawa. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1993. 126-67.
Chin, Frank, Jeffery Paul Chan, Lawson Inada, and Shaw Hsu Wang, eds. AIIIEEEEE! An Anthology of Chinese and Japanese American Literature. New York: Meridian, 1991.
Delbaere, Jeanne. “Joy Kogawa Interviewed by Jeanne Delbaere.” Kanapipi 16 (1994): 461-64.
Erikson, E. H. Identity and Life Cycle. New York: Norton, 1968.
Fairbanks, Carol. “Joy Kogawa’s Obasan: A Study in Political Efficacy.” Journal of American & Canadian Studies 5 (1990): 73-92
Figley, Charles R., ed. Trauma and Its Wake. 2 vols. New York: Brunner-Mazel, 1985-1986.
Fujita, Gayle K. “ ‘To Attend the Sound of Stone’: The Sensibility of Silence in
Obasan.” MELUS 12 (1985): 33-42.
----. “Momotaro’s Exile: John Okada’s No-No Boy.” Ed. Shirey Geok-lin Lim
and Amy Ling. Reading The Literatures of Asian America. Philadelphia:
Temple UP, 1992.
Goellnicht, Donald C. “A Long Labor: The Protected Birth of Asian Canadian Literature.” Essays on Canadian Writing 72 (2000): 1-41.
----. “Minority History as Metafiction: Joy Kogawa’s Obasan.” Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 8 (1989): 287-306.
Gottlieb, Erika. “The Riddle of Concentric Worlds in Obasan.” Canadian Literature 109 (1986):34-53.
Granofsky, Ronald. The Trauma Novel: Contemporary Symbolic Depictions of Collective Disaster. New York: Peter Lang, 1995.
Harris, Mason. “Broken Generation in ‘Obasan’: Inner Conflict and the Destruction of Community.” Canadian Literature 27 (1990): 41-57.
Hartman, Geoffrey H. “On Traumatic knowledge and Literary Studies.” New Literary History 26 (1995): 537-63.
Herman, Judith Lewis. Trauma and Recovery. New York: BasicBooks, 1992.
Howells, Coral Ann. “Storm Class: The Preservation and Transformation of History in the Diviner’s, Obasan, My Lovely Enemy.” Kunapipi 16 (1994): 471-78.
Inada, Lawson Fusao. “The Vision of America in John Okada’s No-No Boy.” Ethnic Literatures Since 1776: The Many Voices of America. Ed. Wolodymyr T. Zyla and Wendell M. Aycock. Texas: Texas Tech Press, 1978. 275-87.
Jones, Manina. “The Avenues of Speech and Silence: Telling Difference in Joy Kogawas’s Obasan.” Theory Between the Disciplines. Ed. Martin Kreiswirch and Mark A. Cheetham. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990. 213-30.
Kitano, Harry H. L. Race Relations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974.
Kogawa, Joy. Obasan. New York: Anchor Books, 1981.
LaCapra, Dominick. Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma. Ithaca:Cornell UP, 1994.
----. Writing History, Writing Trauma. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2001.
Lee, Hsiu-chuan. “Momotaro’ in the Other’s Desire: Fantasy, ‘Americanness’
Complex, and John Okada’s No-No Boy.” Studies in English Literature and
Linguistics 25 (1999): 59-77.
Li, David Leiwei. Imagining the Nation: Asian American Literature and Cultural
Consent. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998.
Lim, Shirley Geok-lin. “Japanese American Women’s Life Stories: Maternality in Monica Sone’s Nisei Daughter and Joy Kogawa’s Obasan.” Asian-American Writers. Ed. Harold Bloom. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 1999. 89-107.
Ling, Amy. Between Worlds: Women Writers of Chinese Ancestry. New York: Pergamon Press, 1990.
Ling, Jinqi. “Race, Power, and Cultural Politics in John Okada’s No-No Boy.” American Literature 67 (1995): 359-81.
Magnusson, A. Lynne. “Language and Longing in Joy Kogawa’s ‘Obasan.’” Canadian Literature 116 (1988): 58-66.
“Manna.” WebBible Encyclopedia. 24 February 2004.
< http://www.christiananswers.net/dictionary/manna.html>
May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger, ed. The Holy Bible. New York: Oxford UP, 1973.
McDonald, Dorothy Ritsuko. “After Imprisonment: Ichiro’s Search for Redemption in No-No Boy.” MELUS 6 (1979): 19-26.
McGinn, Bernard. “Revelation.” The Literary Guide to the Bible. Ed. Robert Alter and Frank Kermode. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard UP, 1987. 523-41.
Nishi, Setsuko Matsunaga. “Japanese Americans.” Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues. Ed. Pyong Gap Min. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1995. 95-133.
Okada, John. No-No Boy. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976.
Potter, Robin. “Moral-in Whose Sense? Joy Kogawa’s Obasan and Julia Kristeva’s Powers of Horror.” Studies in Canadian Literature 15 (1990): 117-39.
“Race.” Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. 5th ed. New York: Oxford UP, 1995.
Rose, Marilyn Russell. “Hawthorne’s ‘Customs House,’ Said’s Orientalism and Kogawa’s Obasan: An Intertextual reading of a Historical Fiction.” Dalhousie Review 67 (1987): 286-296.
Stevenson, Sheryl. “Trauma and Memory in Kingsolver’s Animal Dreams.” LIT 11 (2001): 327-50.
Tedeschi, Richard G. and Lawrence G. Calhoun. Trauma and Transformation: Growing in the Aftermath of Suffering. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1995.
Tharp, Julie. “In the Center of My Body Rift”: Trauma and Recovery in Joy Kogawa’s Obasan and Itsuka.” Creating Safe Space: Violence and Women’s Writing. Ed. Tomoko Kuribayshi and Julie Tharp. New York: State University of New York Press, 1998. 213-25.
Ty, Eleanor. “Struggling with the Powerful (M) Other: Identity and Sexuality in Kogawa’s Obasan and Kincaid’s Lu.” International Fiction Review 20 (1993): 120-26.
Ueki, Teruyo. “Obasan: Revelations in a Paradoxical Scheme.” MELUS 18 (1993): 5-20.
Van der Kolk, Bessel A, Alexander C. McFarlane and Lars Weisaeth,eds. Traumatic Stress : The Effects of Overwhelming Experience On Mind, Body, and Society. New York : Guilford Press, 1996.
Vickroy, Laurie. “The Politics of Abuse: The Traumatized Child in Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye and Marguerite.” Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye. Ed. Harold Bloom. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 1999. 203-19.
Weglyn, Michi Nishiura. Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of American’s Concentration Camps. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996.
Willis, Gary. “Speaking the Silence: Joy Kogawa’s Obasan.” Studies in Canadian Literature 12(1987): 239-49.
Wong, Sau-ling Cynthia. Reading Asian American Literature: From Necessity to Extravagance. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UP, 1993.
“Wound” Collins COBUILD: English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. 3rd ed. Glasgow: HarperCollins, 2001.
Yeh, William. “To Belong or Not to Belong: The Liminality of John Okada’s No-No Boy.” Amerasia Journal 19 (1993): 121-33.
Yogi, Stan. “ ‘You Had to Be One or the Other’: Oppositions and Reconciliation in John Okada’s No-No Boy.” MELUS 21 (1996): 63-77.
----. “Japanese American Literature.” An Interethnic Companion to Asian American Literature. Ed. King-Kok Cheung. New York: Cambridge UP, 1997. 125-55.