如何讓社群中的人們選擇合作？本文以實驗探討互惠與懲罰在合作出現過程中扮演的角色。本文指出，互惠與懲罰有助合作的提昇。首先，在高度互惠的情境下，人們傾向穩定地維持合作，但在低度互惠的情境下，人們容易選擇保守或報復的策略。有趣的是，當氣氛是合作時，高互惠更加有助人們的合作，然而若處於低互惠的氣氛下，懲罰則會抑制報復傾向的轉劇。

Why do people cooperate? Why does not every individuals in their groups choose to be a free-rider all the time? Based on two series of experiments, the author finds that reciprocity and punishment contribute to cooperation. When a group allows positive reciprocity where people can choose to cooperate, positive reciprocity facilitates cooperation. When reciprocity between group members turns to negative, however, group members make little contribution to the group and start to retaliate against their partners. Once punishment is incorporated into the experiment, people’s behavior of cooperation varies. In the high positive reciprocity environment where punishment is used, people, as expected, continue to give more of their resources to their group. But it is worth noting that negative reciprocity did not get worse if punishment is used in group dynamics.

第一章 緒論 1
第一節 研究動機 1
第二節 研究問題與目的 4
第三節 重要概念界定 5
第四節 研究方法簡介 8
第五節 研究限制、貢獻與章節安排 11
第二章 文獻探討 16
第一節 合作的研究與互惠 17
第二節 懲罰與合作 22
第三節 名聲與合作 24
第四節 研究預期與國內相關文獻 27
第三章 實驗設計 31
第一節 公共財實驗 31
第二節 實驗設計內容 34
第三節 實驗流程 43
第四章 研究發現 46
第一節 實驗甲：互惠有無與合作 47
第二節 實驗乙：互惠、懲罰與合作 53
第五章 結論與討論 61
第一節 結論 61
第二節 討論 62
第三節 研究建議與展望 64
參考資料 66
附錄 76
附錄一 實驗甲議題情境與任務 76
附錄二 說明文件一 78
附錄三 說明文件二 79
附錄四 實驗乙議題情境與任務 80
附錄五 實驗甲實驗結果 81
附錄六 實驗乙實驗結果 86

參考資料
一、 中文部分：

朱柔若（譯）（2000）。社會硏究方法 : 質化與量化取向。臺北市：揚智文化。(
Neuman, W., L. 1997)

吳乃仁 （1988）。理性人的非理性社會？-檢討理性抉擇模型在社會科學中的應
用。思.與言，26（2），185-194。

吳榮義、江啟臣（2003）。WTO架構下的國際貿易與台灣的因應策略。國家政策
刊，2（2），1-28。

李茂興（譯）（1996）。合作：社會合作的礎石。台北市：巨流。(Argyle, M., 1991)

李樹人（2009年6月8日）。葉金川不鬆口 嚴格把關？審醫師法修正案 立委立
場也兩極，台籍波蘭醫師 要考學歷認證。聯合晚報，A6。
線上檢索日期：2009 年7 月20 日。網址：
http://udndata.com.ezproxy.lib.nsysu.edu.tw:8080/library/

何應欽、范良禎（2009）。夥伴關係型態對企業的能力、績效及機會之調節效果
－以台灣資訊代工產業爲研究對象。商管科技季刊，10（2），225-253。

林哲全（2009）。從審議式民主原則論台北市大龍峒文化園區爭議。未出版博
士論文，東海大學，台中市。

林秀霞（2005）。組織相依性、信任、機會主義與組織合作關係影響之研究。未
出版博碩士論文，國立臺北大學，台北市。

林繼文 （2005）。虛擬霸權：台灣政治學研究中的理性選擇。政治科學論叢，25，
67-104。

林毅璋（2009年7月21日）台灣醫學生 抗議國考放寬。自由時報。線上檢索日期：
2009 年7 月22 日。網址：http://www.libertytimes.com.tw/2009/new/jul/21/today-life1.htm

徐麗振 （2003）。過去行為可觀察下隨機配對對實驗對象合作行為的影響：聲譽
效果的實驗驗證。經濟論文叢刊，31(4)，507-529。

許耿銘（2008）。全球治理對國家公共政策影響指標之建構。公共行政學報，29，
1-28。

許健華（2006）。內部行銷、情緒智力、情緒勞務、工作滿足與顧客導向間關係
之研究-以桃園縣不動產經紀人員為例。未出版博碩士論文，國立東華大學，
花蓮縣。

陳澤義、洪廣朋、曾建銘（2008）。從關係的觀點探討企業夥伴的選擇對跨組織
學習成效的影響。交大管理學報，28（2），105-130。

梁家瑜（譯）（2009）。社會心理學。臺北市：心理。(Robert A., Donn B., & Nyla R., 2007)

喬治．雷瑟、道格拉斯．古德曼（2007）。社會學理論（鄭祖邦,柯朝欽,陳巨擎譯）。
台北市：麥格羅希爾。（Ritzer, G & Goodman, D, 2003）

葉偉文（譯）（2007）。隱藏的邏輯。台北市：天下遠見。(Buchman, M., 2007)

董安琪（譯）（1989）。集體行動的邏輯。台北市：遠流。(Olsen, M., 1965)

湯雅雯（2009 年 5月 27日）。波蘭醫學生紛爭 台灣生531上街。聯合報，AA4。
線上檢索日期：2009 年7 月20 日。網址：
http://udndata.com.ezproxy.lib.nsysu.edu.tw:8080/library/

湯雅雯、王宏舜（2009 年 6月 1日）。速修法、要實習、反落日、保健康
上千醫學生 上街頭。聯合報，AA4。
線上檢索日期：2009 年7 月20 日。網址：
http://udndata.com.ezproxy.lib.nsysu.edu.tw:8080/library/

楊棍智（2002）。知識分享之研究 - 以社會交換之觀點。未出版博碩士論文，義
守大學，高雄市。

楊建成（2007）。最後通牒賽局理論與研究簡介。社會科學論叢，1(2)，1-21。

楊孟麗（譯）（2007）。實驗與類實驗設計：因果擴論。臺北市：心理。(Shadish,
W. D., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T., 1916)

黃裕舜（2003）。相互性對公共財實驗中合作行為的影響 。未出版博碩士論文，
國立政治大學，台北市。

黃琡珺（2005）。策略聯盟夥伴之關係（Guanxi）、信任、聯盟績效及未來繼續合
作意願。未出版博士論文，國立中山大學，高雄市。

謝鳳秋（2008）。府際合作治理之研究─以台中縣市聯繫會報為例。為出版碩士
論文，東海大學，台中市。

劉仲矩、黃梅君（2007）。由社會交換理論探討勞退新制滿意度對員工績效之影
響。公共行政學報，24，29-69。

蔡佩芳（2009 年 7月 20日）。波醫爭議 醫學生監院陳情。聯合晚報，A8。
線上檢索日期：2009 年7 月20 日。網址：
http://udndata.com.ezproxy.lib.nsysu.edu.tw:8080/library/

羅伯特．巴隆（2007）。社會心理學（梁家瑜譯）。台北市： 心理出版社。（原著
出版年，2007）


二、英文部份：

Abele, S., & Ehrhart, K. M. (2005). The timing effect in public good games. Journal of
experimental social psychology, 41(5), 470-481.

Axelrod, R. (2006). Robert Axelrod. 1986. An evolutionary approach to norms.
American Political Science Review 80 (December): 1095–1111. in The American
Political Science Review Citation Classics. The American Political Science
Review,100(4), 682-683.

Axelrod, R. (1984). The evolution of cooperation (pp.1-10). New York: Basic
Books.

Axelrod, R. (1997). The complexity of cooperation: agent-based models of com
petition and collaboration (pp.45-64). Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.

Axelrod, R. (2006). Robert Axelrod. 1986. An evolutionary approach to norms.
American Political Science Review 80 (December): 1095–1111. in The American
Political Science Review Citation Classics. The American Political Science
Review,100(4), 682-683.

Bicchieri, E., Xiao, E. (2009). Do the right thing: but only if others do so. Journal of
Behavioral Decision Making, 22(2), 191-208.

Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (2004). The evolution of strong reciprocity: cooperation in
heterogeneous populations. Theoretical population biology, 65(1), 17-28.

Bravo, G., & Tamburino, L. (2008) The evolution of trust in non-simultaneous
exchange situations. Rationality and Society, 20(1), 85-113.

Brandt H, Sigmund K (2005). Indirect reciprocity, image scoring, and moral hazard.
Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences of The
United States of America, 102(7), 2666-2670.

Burton-Chellew, M. N., Ross-Gillespie, A., & West, S. A. (2010). Cooperation in
humans: competition between groups and proximate emotions. Evolution and
Human Behavior, 31(2), 104-108.

Cheshire, C. (2007). Selective incentives and generalized information exchange.
Social Psychology Quarterly, 70(1), 82-100.

Cheshire, C., & Antin, J. (2008). The social psychological effects of feedback on the
production of internet information pools. Journal of Computer-mediated
Communication, 13(3), 705-727.

Druckman, James N., Green, Donald P., Kuklinski, James H., & Lupia, Arthur. (2006). The growth and development of experimental research in political science. American Political Science Review, 100(4), 627-635.

Dreber, A., Rand, D. G., Fudenberg, D., & Nowak, M. A. (2008). Winners do
n't punish. Nature, 452(7185), 348-351.

Engelmann, D., & Fischbacher, U. (2009). Indirect reciprocity and strategic rep
utation building in an experimental helping game. Games and Economic B
Ehavior, 67(2), 399-407.

Fehr, E., & Gachter, S. (2000). Fairness and retaliation: The economics of reci
Procity. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(3), 159-181.

Fischbacher U, Gachter S, Fehr E. (2001). Are people conditionally cooperative
e? Evidence from a public goods experiment. Economics Letters, 71(3), 3
97-494.

Fehr, E., & Gachter, S. (2002). Altruistic punishment in humans. Nature, 415(6
868), 137-140.

Fehr, E., & Fischbacher, U. (2003). The nature of human altruism. Nature,
425(6960), 785-791.

Fehr, E., & Fischbacher, U. (2004). Social norms and human cooperation. Trends In Cognitive Sciences, 8(4), 185-190.

Fehr, E., & Ginits, H. (2007). Human motivation and social cooperation: Experimental and analytical foundations. Annual Review of Sociology, 33, 43-64.

Fehr, E. & Schneider, F. (2010). Eyes are on us, but nobody cares: are eye cu
es relevant for strong reciprocity? Proceedings of The Royal Society B-Biol
Ogical Sciences, 277(1686), 1315-1323.

Fischbacher, U. (2007). z-Tree: Zurich toolbox for ready-made economic experi
ments. Experimental Economics, 10(2), 171-178.

Green D. P., & Shapiro, I. (1994). Pathologies of rational choice theory: a cr
itique of applications in political science (pp.72-97). New Haven: Yale University Press

Hamilton, W. D. (1964). Genetical evolution of social behavior I and II. Journal of
Theoretical Biology, 7, 1–52.

Janssen, M. A., & Goldstone, R. L. (2006). Dynamic-persistence of cooperation
in public good games when group size is dynamic. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 243(1), 134-142.

Janssen, M. A., & Bushman, C,. (2008). Evolution of cooperation and altruistic
punishment when retaliation is possible. Journal of Theoretical
Biology, 254(3), 541-545.

Keysar, B., Converse B. A., Wang J., & Epley N. (2008). Reciprocity is not give and
take: asymmetric reciprocity to positive and negative acts. Psychological
Science, 19(12), 1280-1286.

Kitts, J. A. (2006). Collective action, rival incentives, and the emergence of
antisocial norms. American Sociological Review, 71, 235-259.

Kiyonari, T., & Barclay, P. (2008). Cooperation in social dilemmas: Free riding may be thwarted by second-order reward rather than by punishment. Journal of Personality And Social Psychology, 95(4), 826-842.

Kurzban, R., & Houser, D. (2001). Individual differences in cooperation in a ci
rcular public goods game. European Journal of Personality, 15(Sp. Iss. 1), s37-s52.

Kurzban, R., & Houser, D. (2005). Experiments investigating cooperative types in humans: A complement to evolutionary theory and simulations. Procee Dings of The National Academy of Sciences of The United States of Amer ica, 102(5), 1803-1807.

Kurzban, R., & Descioli, P. (2008), Reciprocity in groups: Information-seeking
in a public goods game. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38(1), 13
9-158.

Lubell, M. (2004). Collaborative watershed management: A view from the gras
sroots. Policy Studies Journal, 32(3), 341-361.

Marwell, G & Ames R. E. (1981). Economists free ride, does anyone else? :
Experiments on the provision of public goods, IV. Journal of Public Economics, 15(3), 295-310.

Messer, K. D., & Zarghamee, H. (2007). New hope for the voluntary contributions mechanism: The effects of context. Journal of Public Economics, 91(9), 1783-1799.

Messer, K. D., Kaiser, H. M., & Poe, G. L. (2007). Voluntary funding for generic advertising using a provision point mechanism: An experimental analysis of option assurance. Review of Agricultural Economics, 29(3), 612-631.

McCullough, M. E., Kimeldorh, M. B., & Cohen, A. D. (2008). An adaptation for
altruism? The social causes, social effects, and social evolution of gratitude.
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(4), 281-285.

Milinski, M., & Rockenbach, B. (2008). Human behaviour - Punisher pays. Nature,
452(7185), 297-298.

Molm, L. D., Peterson, G., & Takahashi, N. (2001). The value of exchange. Social
Forces, 80(1), 159-184.

Molm, L., Collett J. L., & Schaefer D.R. (2007). Building solidarity through
generalized exchange: A theory of reciprocity. American Journal of Sociology,
113(1), 205-242.

Molm, L. D., & Schaefer, D. R. (2009) Fragile and Resilient Trust: Risk and Uncertainty in Negotiated and Reciprocal Exchange. Sociological Theory,
27(1), 1-32.

Ohtsuki, H., & Iwasa, Y. (2004). How should we define goodness? Reputation
dynamics in indirect reciprocity. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 231(1),
107-120.

Ohtsuki, H., & Iwasa, Y. (2006). The leading eight: Social norms that can maintain
cooperation by indirect reciprocity. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 239(4),
435-444.

Ostrom, Elinor (2005). Policies that crowd out of reciprocity and collective action. In
Gintis,H., Bowles, S.,Boyd, R. & Fehr,E. (Eds) Moral sentiments and material
interests(pp. 253-276). England: The MIT Press.

Price, M. E., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2002). Punitive sentiment as an anti-free
rider psychological device. Evolution and Human Behavior, 23(3), 203-231.

Reno, R. R., Cialdini, R. B., & Kallgren, C. A. (1993). The transsituational influence
of social norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(1), 104-112.

Rege, M, & Telle, K. (2004). The impact of social approval and framing on c
ooperation in public good situations. Journal of Public Economics, 88(7-
8),1625-1644.

Ritzer, G. (2008). Modern sociological theory. New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Higher
Education.

Rockenbach, B., & Milinski, M. (2006). The efficient interaction of indirect
reciprocity and costly punishment. Nature, 444(7120), 718-723.

Rosas, A. (2010). Evolutionary game theory meets social science: Is there a unifying
rule for human cooperation? Journal of Theoretical Biology, 264(2), 450-456.

Semmann, D., Krambeck, H. J., & Milinski, M. (2005). Reputation is valuable within
and outside one's own social group. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 57(6), 611-616.

Sommerfeld, R. D., Krambeck, H. J., Semmann, D., & Milinski, M. (2007) Gossip as an alternative for direct observation in games of indirect reciprocity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(44), 1745-17440.

Shinada, Mizuho & Yamagishia, Toshio (2007), Punishing free riders: direct and
indirect promotion of cooperation. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28,
330-330.

Sonderskov, K. M., (2009), Different goods, different effects: exploring the effects of
generalized social trust in large-N collective action. Public Choice, 140(1-2),
145-160.

Suzuki, Shinsuke & Akiyama, Eizo (2005). Reputation and the evolution of
cooperation in sizable groups. Proceedings of The Royal Society
B-Biological Sciences , 272, 1373-1377.

Suzuki, Shinsuke & Akiyama, Eizo (2007a). Evolution of indirect reciprocity in
groups of various sizes and comparison with direct reciprocity. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 245, 539-552.

Suzuki, Shinsuke & Akiyama, Eizo (2007b). Three-person game facilitates indirect
reciprocity under image scoring. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 249, 93-100.

Suzuki, Shinsuke & Akiyama, Eizo (2008). Reputation and the evolution of
cooperation in sizable groups. Proceedings of The Royal Society
B-Biological Sciences, 272, 1373-1377.

Thye, E. H., Lawler, S. R., & Yoon, J. (2008). Social exchange and micro social order.
American Sociological Review, 73(4), 519-542.

Takezawa, M., & Price, M. E. (2010). Revisiting "The Evolution of Reciprocity in
sizable Groups": Continuous reciprocity in the repeated n-person prisoner's
dilemma. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 264(2), 188-196.

Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Varieties of altruism in children and
chimpanzees. Trends in cognitive sciences, 13(9), 397-402.

Willer, Robb (2009). Groups Reward Individual Sacrifice: The Status Solution to the
Collective Action Problem. American Sociological Review, 74, 23-4