本研究目標是改善南秘魯高地的比爾卡班山谷之農業水資源管理，靠著有效的農作物時程規劃可以用旱作灌溉來滿足大部分用水需求。因此，印加時期的農作物需求被重新建構起來，以便估算當時居住在Vitcos地方的人口量。做出一個比爾卡班土地適宜評估，以便來決定過去Vitcos地點選擇是否恰當。
第一章介紹了本研究的研究方法、地點位置及比爾班高在後印加時期的歷史觀點，而比爾班高人以Vitcos為主要居住地及印加社會組織。從農業科技區塊來看，梯田或安德內司是詳細的，它是被建立在陡峭的山坡上及被設計出有較深土壤來減少侵蝕與風險。在印加時期重建原生作物，從16世紀和公元17世紀的編年史糧食和作物引用進行了描述。
第二章討論現代農業，利用該地區的氣候資料、被栽培農作物的種類、土壤特性、土地利用的數量、地方水資源管理及水文。農作物量的估計及種植的時程規劃是由Cropwat程式來計算，結果顯示出旱作農作物可以如同一般所做的，在9月到12月之間進行播種主要農作物。這表示這些高地區域的農夫們擁有一個良好的農作物時程規劃管理，即充分利用大部分雨季時間。儘管如此，若農作物是旱季作物，且沒有預先灌溉來潤濕土壤，農作物的生產量將會受到影響。結論是，為了把此影響壓縮到最小，被選擇的農作物應晚一個月播種，才會更接近雨季的開始。
第三章詳細描述了Vitcos，並將該地分成了10個主要區域，分別為皇宮、Inti Raymi、Yurac Rumi、東梯田、東北梯田、東北小梯田、東北田、東南田、西北田及上梯田。GIS的評估指出Victos總共約有180公頃，農業田及梯田評估約有20公頃，占了Vitcos約11%之土地。水文及水利工程方面在兩個田野操作中被評估，就在乾季(2012年9月)及溼季(2013年2月)中利用流速除以面積的方法來決定河流及運河的流動能力。農業地下水方面經過討論後，發現毛細現象提供了農作物之額外吸水量。在東梯田，發現了地下流水通道，這表示這些梯田是與地下水網路一起建造的，並在雨季時是用來排水，而在旱季時則用來灌溉。利用GIS工具來對泉水、水道及灌溉梯田製圖，是有用於定位水資源、流量及土壤樣品資料，而資料是利用ArcGIS第10版來進行，並以1比100000之電子地圖標示。
第四章評估在Vitcos地方的農業及水資源管理。在印加殖民期間（公元1537年至1572年）的氣候重建是以來自Quelccaya冰帽之冰芯數據來估計，把它與第二章的現代氣候資料做連結，以便計算蒸散。在過去所栽培的農作物被重建起來，乃是用孢粉學及所收集的農田土壤樣品放射性碳分析來測得年份；這些結果還有原生農作物的歷史文件來補充，以便重新創造農作物的時程規劃。估計印加時期的Vitcos人口數，是考慮到農作物區域、農作物產量、農作物營養價值、印加飲食習慣及每個人的熱量需求。結果指出糧食產量可維持約365萬人，這與基於可容納居民的住宅數目的估計，連結很好。
第五章進行比爾卡班巴河谷的土地適宜性評估，來確定印加人的選址在公元16世紀期間是否適當。這項研究是基於本地區的農業活動及防禦潛能，考慮到土壤、侵蝕、排水、氣候、水體的距離、坡度及地形的合適性。這些因素的特徵是被權衡，而地圖與GIS工具疊加來獲得一個土地適宜性之地圖。結論是，在整體研究區之高度及中度合適的土地不到8％內，印加人很熟悉他們的環境，選擇了Vitcos地方作為一個恰當的位置。

This work aimed to improve the water management for agriculture in Vilcabamba valley in the highlands of South Peru, by applying efficient crop schedules that can satisfy most of the water requirements with rainfed irrigation. Consequently, the crop water requirements during Incas times were reconstructed to estimate the population that lived in Vitcos Inca site, based on the food production. A land suitability assessment of Vilcabamba was carried out, determining the adequacy of Vitcos site selection in the past.
Chapter 1 described the methodology of the research, site location, historical aspects of the last Incas of Vilcabamba who settled in Vitcos as their main residence and the Inca social organisation. On the agricultural technology section, the terraces or andenes are detailed, which were built on steep slopes and designed to have deeper soils to reduce erosion and risk. Food and crop schedules references by chroniclers from the 16th and 17th century AD were described, reconstructing native crops during the Incas period.
Chapter 2 addressed the modern agriculture, using climate data from the region, type of crops cultivated, soil properties, the amount of land used, the water management and hydrology of the place. Crop estimations and planting schedules were calculated by Cropwat programme. The results determined that rainfed agriculture can be applied by sowing the main crops between September and December, as commonly practiced. This indicates that farmers from these highland regions have a good crop scheduling management, making the most of the rainy season. Nonetheless, if crops were only rainfed and without a pre-irrigation to moist the soil, the crop yield would be affected, concluding that in order to minimise the effects, selected crops should be sown one month later, closer to the beginning of the rain season.
On Chapter 3 Vitcos description is detailed, distributing the site into 10 main sectors: Palace, Inti Raymi, Yurac Rumi, East terraces, Northeast terraces, Northeast small terraces, Northeast fields, Southeast fields, Northwest fields and Upper terraces. GIS assessments indicate that Vitcos has an overall area of near 180 ha, where the agricultural fields and terraces are estimated to be 20 ha, about 11% of Vitcos complex. The hydrology and hydraulic engineering aspects were assessed on two field practices during the dry (September 2012) and wet season (February 2013) determining the flow capacities of rivers and canals with the velocity/area method. Groundwater aspects on the agricultural fields are discussed, finding that capillary rise provided water surplus to crops. A subterranean channel at the East terraces was identified, indicating that these terraces were built with a groundwater network for drainage purposes during the rainy season and for irrigation during the dry season. Mapping of springs, canals and irrigation terraces with GIS tools was useful to locate water sources, flow and soil samples data, the data was processed on ArcGis version 10 and overlapped on 1/100,000 digital maps.
On Chapter 4 the agriculture and water management in Vitcos site is assessed. Climatic reconstruction during the Inca settlement (1537-1572 AD) was estimated with ice core data from Quelccaya ice cap, relating it to the modern climatic data from Chapter 2, to calculate evapotranspiration. Crops cultivated in the past were reconstructed with palynology and radiocarbon dating analysis of soil samples collected in crop fields; these results were complemented with historical documents of native crops to recreate the cropping schedules. The population of Vitcos during the Incas was estimated, taking into account the crop field area, the crop yields, the crops nutritional value, Incas dietary habits and the calories requirements per person. The result indicate that the food production could have sustained a population of about 365 people, relating well with estimations based on the number of dwellings that could accommodate the residents.
A land suitability assessment of Vilcabamba valley was carried out on Chapter 5, to determine whether the Incas site selection was adequate during the 16th century AD. The study was based on agricultural activities and defensive potential of this region, taking into account the suitability of soil, erosion, drainage, climate, water body distance, slope and terrain. Features on these factors were weighted and map overlaid with GIS tools obtaining a land suitability map, concluding that the Incas knew well their environment, selecting Vitcos settlement as an adequate location within a scarce 8% of highly and moderately suitable land of the overall study area.

Acknowledgements i
摘要 iii
Abstract v
Contents vii
List of Figures xi
List of Plates xiv
List of Tables xv
1 Background 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Aims and objectives 2
1.3 Methodology 2
1.4 Location 7
1.5 History 8
1.5.1 The Inca Empire 8
1.5.2 The last Incas of Vilcabamba 9
1.5.3 Chronology of events 13
1.6 Inca Social Organisation and the Agricultural system 15
1.6.1 Inca State Organisation 15
1.6.1.1 Reciprocity system 15
1.6.1.2 The Wealth of the Inca State 16
1.6.2 Inca technology 17
1.6.3 The Inca Agricultural Terraces or Andenes 18
1.7 Food and crop schedules in the past 20
1.7.1 Juan de Betanzos 20
1.7.2 Martin de Murua 21
1.7.3 Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala 23
1.7.4 Bernabe Cobo 26
1.7.5 Sir Clements Markham 27
2 Agriculture in Vilcabamba region in modern times 28
2.1 Modern irrigation 28
2.2 Land use 29
2.3 Hydrology of Vilcabamba District 30
2.3.1 River Vilcabamba 30
2.3.2 Vilcanota River 31
2.3.3 Vilcabamba streams and springs 32
2.4 Modern Climate in Huancacalle area 33
2.4.1 Temperature, humidity and wind speed in Huancacalle 35
2.4.2 Actual sunshine duration in Huancacalle 39
2.5 Evapotranspiration (ETo) 39
2.6 Rainfall 42
2.7 Cropping pattern 44
2.8 Soil 45
2.8.1 Soil taxonomy 46
2.8.2 Soil analysis 47
2.8.3 Land use capacity 49
2.9 Water requirements 50
2.9.1 Formulae 50
2.9.2 Scheme irrigation requirements 52
2.10 Scheduling criteria for rainfed irrigation 54
3 Site description and hydraulic engineering 57
3.1 Site description 57
3.1.1 Vitcos palace 60
3.1.2 Inti Raymi site 61
3.1.3 Upper terraces 62
3.1.4 Yurac Rumi ceremonial site 63
3.1.5 East terraces 65
3.1.6 Northeast terraces 68
3.1.7 East fields 70
3.1.8 Small Northeast terraces 71
3.1.9 Southwest fields 72
3.1.10 Northwest fields 74
3.2 Hydrology and Hydraulic Engineering in Vitcos 75
3.2.1 Watercourses discharge measurement 76
3.2.2 Groundwater 78
3.2.3.1 Capillary rise 79
3.2.3.2 Reservoir for human consumption 79
4 Reconstruction of crop water requirements at Vitcos Site in Incas times
(16th century AD) 81
4.1 Climate reconstruction 81
4.1.1 Quelccaya ice cap proxies 81
4.1.1.1 Particle concentration and conductivity 82
4.1.1.2 Oxygen isotope (δ18O) 82
4.1.1.3 Ice accumulation 83
4.1.1.4 Correlation between Queccaya and Sajama ice caps 84
4.1.2 Temperature and evapotranspiration during the Inca settlement of
Vitcos 85
4.1.3 Precipitation estimates during the Inca settlement of Vitcos 86
4.2 Crops reconstruction 87
4.2.1 Soil samples 87
4.2.2 Palynology analysis 89
4.2.3 Radiocarbon dating analysis 91
4.3 Crops schedules and food production related to Vitcos site 96
4.3.1 Crop schedules in the Andes in Incas and early Colonial periods 96
4.3.2 Crops related to altitude suitability 97
4.3.3 Cropping pattern reconstruction in Vitcos 97
4.4 Irrigation requirements 99
4.4.1 Succession planting of crops 100
4.5 Population of Vitcos Site in Incas times 101
4.6 Discussion 104
4.6.1 Machu Picchu population assessment based on food production 105
4.6.2 Pre-Inca periods 107
5 Land suitability assessment of Vilcabamba valley 108
5.1 Land evaluation data and weights 108
5.1.1 Land use classification 109
5.1.2 Terrain 110
5.1.3 Slope 110
5.1.4 Rivers and water resources 111
5.2 Land suitability evaluation 112
5.3 Land suitability distribution in Vilcabamba 114
Conclusions 115
Recommendations 118
References 120
Publications 128
Appendix 129

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