領導者正直是一種美德，也常常和一個公司的聲譽、組織的表現、以及部屬的信任等並為一談。領導者正直顯然是任何組織領導人與主管都想要擁有的一種特質。然而，有關於如何讓領導者能夠運用此一美德，進而促進組織進步的研究，卻面臨兩個困境：1) 對於領導正直研究領域與定義的迷惑，以及2) 正直要求一致性的本質，與領導者必須權變之間的矛盾與兩難。此外，一般大眾對於正直的期待是剛正不阿、堅守原則；但我們仍常見言行不一致的領導者卻還是受到部屬的信任。這與正直嚴謹的定義似乎有所出入。在領導者被認知的正直與部屬的信任關係之間，是否有那些特質，能夠維持一位領導者的信任，即使是因情境因素該領導者必須做出權變行為？
本研究運用契約論觀點以及從傳統中華文化中擷取的智慧，探討領導者正直有關的這些模糊、矛盾、與信任維持等問題，提出領導者應用正直行為提升正面影響力的一些準則：領導者首要應堅守核心的道德信念，同時能在萬變的企業環境中，敏感而迅速的察覺環境的規範，並作出協調與決策。
實證研究的結果發現部屬所察覺的「真誠」 (authenticity)、與「義」(righteousness)，對於領導者正直與部屬信任之間的關係具有調節作用：當領導者言行不一時（低度行為正直），領導者若具有較高度的真誠或義，仍然得以維持相當程度的部屬信任。
本研究對於理論貢獻在於釐清領導者正直研究的範疇與定義，並建議以道德為中心的契約論觀點，取代傳統以一致性（不變性）為中心的領導者正直觀點，據以解決正直研究的兩難。對於企業領導者的行為正直，本研究建議：1)瞭解正直一詞所蘊涵的多重範疇與特質；2)堅守道德，和而不同；3)表現真誠、行事由義。經由契約論觀點與實證研究，本研究相信領導者正直是可以加以學習與增進的，其伴隨而來的收獲就是更佳的信任。

Leader integrity is a virtue and is frequently associated with better company reputation, performance in organizations, and trust from followers. Integrity seems to be a desirable quality an organization leader wants to encompass. Nevertheless, research in implementing integrity for better leadership has been facing quandaries: the ambiguity in referral of integrity domains and definitions, and the dilemma that integrity calls for consistency yet in reality leaders have to be adaptive to cope with changes. In addition, it is not unusual that leaders in various contexts behaving inconsistently yet trust from their followers is retained. Will there be other characteristics that facilitate trust in leaders even if the perceived behavioral integrity (PBI) is low?
This research tries to address these leader integrity issues—ambiguity, dilemma, and maintenance of trust in order to provide a leader with concrete and concise guidance in implementing integrity. From a perspective of Contractarian coupled with ancient Chinese notions, this research investigates the relationship between a leader’s perceived behavioral integrity and trust from his/her followers and proposes that leaders hold the core—morality, and work accordingly to identify norms, tackle and solve problems, craft negotiations, yet maintain their awareness in essence.
Two core values are identified of moderating effect that a leader with lower PBI is able to maintain a certain level of trust. Should a leader be perceived processing authenticity and righteousness, higher level of trust would be maintained even if he/she were perceived low in behavioral integrity.
This research advances the theory of integrity research by clarifying the domains and frees the coercion of consistency issues by proposing a morality-based Contractarian integrity view versus the traditional consistency-based integrity. An empirical attempt to investigate and provide explanation for the phenomena why a leader perceived low in behavioral integrity still obtain trust by their followers is added to the moderated consequences of the framework of integrity research.
For practical business practitioners to implement leader integrity, this research suggests they (1) understand the characteristics and domains of integrity, (2) uphold morality and work in harmony with the tides in accordance to the leaders immediate environs, and (3) be salient in authenticity and righteousness. This research believes leader integrity is not merely a personal virtue but a practice that could be learned and implemented. The reward this understanding is better trust from their followers and subordinates.

Table of Contents

List of Tables ……………………………………………………………… v
List of Figures …………………………………………………………… vi
Abstract…………………………………………………………………… vii
中文摘要 ………………………………………………………………… ix
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Background and Motivations ……………………………………… 1
1.2 Purpose and Research Questions…………………………………… 5
1.3 Scope of This Research……………………………………………. 7
1.3.1 Perceived or not perceived
1.3.2 To act or not to act
1.3.3 Level of analysis
1.3.4 Empirical domain of this research
1.4 Importance of This Research………………………………………… 11
1.5 Organization of This Research……………………………………… 12

Chapter 2 Integrity
2.1 Integrity……………………………………………………………… 14
2.2 Issues in Integrity Research………………………………………… 21
2.2.1 Elusiveness
2.2.2 Contradictions
2.2.3 Morality Concerns
2.2.4 Confusions of Domains
2. 3 Call for a link for Leader Integrity and Contractarianism….……… 26

Chapter 3 Contexts And Contracts
3.1 Psychological Contract………………………………….…………… 28
3.2 Contexts and Layers of Contracts …………………………………… 29
3.3 Integrative Social Contracts Theory…………………….…………… 34
3.4 Social Contract and Contractarianism…………………….………… 36
3.5 Contractarianism and leader integrity……………………………….. 43
3.5.1 Morality
3.5.2 Consistency
3.5.3 Wholeness
3.5.4 A Contractarian View to Leader Integrity


Chapter 4 Exploring Core Values Moderating Perceived Leader Behavioral Integrity And Trust
4.1 Integrity and Trust—Complement or Ambiguity?................................ 49
4.2 Trust………………………………………………………………… 51
4.2 .1 Perceived Behavioral Integrity and Trustworthiness of the trustee
4.2.2 Ability and PBI
4.2.3 Benevolence and PBI
4.2.4 Integrity and PBI
4.3 Authenticity…………………………………………………………. 56
4.4 Spirituality and spiritual leadership…………………………………. 60
4.5 Righteousness………………………………………………………… 62


Chapter 5 Research Approach
5.1 Variables and Hypothesis……………………………………………… 65
5.2 Measurement of variables………………….………………………… 68
5. 2. 1 Trust
5. 2. 2 Perceived Behavioral Integrity (PBI)
5. 2. 3 The Moderators
Authenticity
Spirituality
Righteousness
5.2.4 The Control Variables
5.3 Pretest for formal survey building……………………………………… 73
Pretest design and survey
Modifications after covariance and validity analysis of construct
Survey items for analysis after modification
5.4 Survey Process……………………………………………………….. 78

Chapter 6 Research Findings And Hypothesis Tests
6. 1 Demographic and Descriptive Statistics………………………… 82
6. 2 Analysis of Demographic Data in Relating to Other Variables…. 84
6. 3 Scattered Plots……………………………….…………………… 89
6. 4 Hierarchical Regression Analysis……………………………….. 93
6. 5 Regression Plots………………………………………………… 99



Chapter 7 Conclusion And Implications
7. 1 Conclusion…………………………………………………….… 102
7. 2 Theoretical Implications……………………………………….… 105
7. 3 Practical Implications……………………………………...…… 107
7. 4 Limitations and Future Research……………………………….. 108

References
References in Chinese…………………………………………….………… 111
References in English………………………………………………....…… 112

Appendix
Survey Questionnaire……………………………………………….……… 129


LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Two-point Temporal Break-downs on Combinations of Integrity Domains……………………………………………………...………26
Table 2 Conceptual Associations for Hypotheses 2 through 6…………….……...66
Table 3 Summary of Variables and Sources for Derived Measurements…………78
Table 4 Questionnaire Distribution and Effective Samples……………………….81
Table 5 Summary of Demographic Data…………….…………………………….83
Table 6 Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations……………………………84
Table 7 ANOVA for Different Sample Sources……………….…………………..87
Table 8 ANOVA for Categorical Variables………………………………………..87
Table 9 Brief Summary for PosHoc Analysis……………………………………...88
Table 10 Hierarchical Regression Results: Perceived Behavioral Integrity (PBI) and Trust……………………………………………………….………..95
Table 11 Hierarchical Regression Results: Effects of Authenticity on PBI and Trust……………………………………………………………….....….96
Table 12 Hierarchical Regression Results: Effects of Spirituality on PBI and Trust……………………………………………………………….....….97
Table 13 Hierarchical Regression Results: Effects of Righteousness on PBI and Trust……………………………………………………………….....….98
Table 14 Summary of Hypothesis Tests…………………………………………….99


LIST OF FIGURES


Figure 1 Conceptual Diagram of Antecedents and Consequences of Behavioral Integrity…………………………………………………………….……11
Figure 2 A Contractarian View to Leader Integrity ……….……………..……..…..48
Figure 3 Hypothesized Model: PBI, Trust, and Core Values…………..………..…..67
Figure 4 Data plots of PBI and Trust………………………………………………..89
Figure 5 Data plots of PBI and Trust in Relation to High and Low Authenticity…..90
Figure 6 Data plots of PBI and Trust in Relation to High and Low Spirituality…....91
Figure 7 Data plots of PBI and Trust in Relation to High and Low Righteousness...92
Figure 8 Interaction between Perceived Behavioral Integrity (PBI) and Authenticity in Predicting Trust………………………………………………………100
Figure 9 Interaction between Perceived Behavioral Integrity (PBI) and Righteousness in Predicting Trust……………………………...……………….………101

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