學術文獻裡，「正直」一直被視為是領導者一項很重要的品質。領導者如果正直，對於達成組織的目標有很大的助益。這樣的看法也受到企業界以及一般大眾的認同。僅管如此，本研究認為「正直」不只是領導者想要的特質，領導者希望「正直」也是可以運用的、可以影響他人的資源，倂由此建立出個人的專業形象。本研究運用「量」的研究方法，來探究「正直」的一些關鍵因素；輔以「質」的研究方法，運用半結構式的訪談，擴展量化研究之廣度並提供較深入的反思。訪談發現，企業經理人的確認「正直」是一個應該追求的特質、也認認知到維護「正直形象」對於其專業角色的重要性。
量的研究方面，本研究並未發現自我關注與正直之間直接顯著變化的關係，幾項情境介面卻證實了有相當的影響。首先是「工作要求度 (job demand)」：在工作要求度高的工作環境之下，高度自我關注的領導者，其行為正直的程度被其部屬視為較低。其次是領導者與部屬間的「距離 (distance)」—兩者之間互動的親疏程度。本研究顯示，兩者間「距離」的縮短，對於領導者獲得部屬評價為高度正直的機會較大。在「多重面向(multiple audiences)」，以及公司是否具備明確的「倫理規範(ethical guideline)」方面，本研究結果顯示：對於部屬知覺的領導者行為正直，與領導者自我關注之間，不具顯著影響效果。
本研究結果對於「正直」在領導者行為上所扮演角色提供了更深層的認識。正直是領導者專業形象建構的一部份。然而，領導者或許只是單純的知道建立正直形象的重要性，卻明瞭應該如何做、以及在什麼時候做。理論方面，本研究運用質與量的混合分析，對於領導者自我察覺的各種面向做出深入探討。實務方面，本研究的發現更進一步的建議領導者：領導行為所身處的情境與環境，例如工作要求度與和部屬間的距離，是影響其被認知為正直的關鍵因素。

Integrity in leadership is regarded as an important quality by the academic literature, by the practitioner and by the popular press alike. Given its lauded position this research argues that integrity is not just desirable in a manager, it is also an image desired by the manager and that it is a part the manager’s professional image construction. This research uses a mixed methods approach to investigate integrity as an image goal and examines dispositional and situational factors on the manager’s side of the relationship that effect the presentation of this image goal. Analysis of semi-structured interviews established that managers are aware of the importance of integrity and that it is seen both as a desirable image and in need of maintenance. Survey results found no main effects between behavioral integrity and the dispositional variable, self-monitoring. Investigating contingent factors this study showed that the relationship was moderated by job demands such that in situations of high job demands high self-monitors were perceived to be lower in behavioral integrity. Other contingent factors, multiple audiences and ethical guidelines, did not significantly moderate the relationship. The situational variable, distance, was shown to significantly affect the perception of the manager’s integrity, where a reduction in distance led to an increase in behavioral integrity perceived by the subordinate. These results are discussed in combination with themes identified from the manager interviews and contribute to the understanding of the role of integrity for the manager and an understanding of how integrity is part of his professional image construct. The study indicated that while a manager may desire to present an image of integrity dispositional and situational factors might affect the success of this self-presentational goal. Implications and future research directions are presented.

Table of Contents

List of Tables ……………………………………………………………… xi
List of Figures …………………………………………………………….. xii

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Background ……………………………………………….…………………… 1
1.2 Gaps in the Literature ……………………………………….………………… 6
1.3 Research Questions ……………………………………….…………………… 8
1.4 Contributions of this Research………………………………….……………… 8
1.5 Order of the Dissertation …………………………….………………………… 9

Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Integrity in Management ………….…………………….………………….… 12
2.1.1 Integrity in leadership
2.1.2 Integrity in trust
2.1.3 Integrity and cynicism
2.1.4 Integrity and the corporation
2.1.5 Integrity and the practitioner
2.16 Outcomes of integrity
2. 2 A Brief Etymology of Integrity ….………………….………………………… 18
2.3 Definition of Integrity ….…………………………….………………………… 19
2.3.1 Integrity in moral philosophy
2.3.2 Integrity in management
2.4 Perception of Integrity ……………………………………………….…………. 27
2.4.1 Manager’s professional image construction
2.4.2 Integrity and authenticity
2.5 Dispositional and Situational Factors Influencing the Perception of Integrity 32
2.5.1 Self-monitoring
2.6 Summary …………………………………………….……………………… 36

Chapter 3 Hypotheses and Methodology
3.1 Research Questions, Variables and Hypotheses ……………………….…..… 38
3.1.1 Presentation of integrity
3.1.2 Integrity
3.1.3 Self-monitoring
3.1.4 Moderators of self-monitoring and behavioral integrity:
Job demands and self-monitoring
Multiple audiences and self-monitoring
Ethical guidelines and self-monitoring
3.1.5 Distance
3.2 Summary of Hypotheses ……………………………….………………….. 51
3.3 Method ………………………………….………….……………………… 52
3.4 Qualitative Research …………………………….………………………… 53
3.4.1 Materials and data collection
3.5 Quantitative Study …………………………………….…………………… 55
3.5.1 Participants and procedure
3.5.2 Sample size
3.5.3 Measures:
Behavioral integrity
Self-monitoring
Contingent and situational factors
Control variables

Chapter 4 Analysis
4.1 Qualitative Study …………………………………….…………………………. 62
4.1.1 Perception of integrity
4.1.2 Demonstration of integrity
4.1.3 Cost of integrity
4.1.4 Contradictions
4.1.5 Challenges to integrity
4.1.6 Integrity maintenance
4.1.7 Culture
4.1.8 Summary
4.2 Quantitative Study ………………………………….……………..…………… 80
4.1.2 Data preparation
4.2.2 Descriptive statistics
4.2.3 Hypothesis testing
4.3 Summary of Hypotheses Results ……………….…….………………..………….. 93

Chapter 5 Discussion
5.1 The Importance to the Manager of his Perceived Integrity …….……………… 96
5.2 Behavioral Integrity and Self-monitoring ………….………………….……..… 99
5.3 Contingent Factors ……………….………..…….………………………..….… 101
5.3.1 Job demands
5.3.2 Multiple audiences
5.3.3 Ethical guidelines
5.4 Situational Factors ……………….………..….………………………….….… 105
5.5 Implications ……………….………..…….………………………………. 107
5.5.1 Theoretical & methodological
5.5.2 Practical
5.6 Strengths and Limitations ……………….……….……………..………… 112
5.7 Recommendations for Further Research …………….……………….…… 114
5.8 Conclusions ……………….………..…….………………………………. 116

References …………………………………..……….……………………………... 136

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